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Dementia is often perceived as a condition that affects only the elderly. However, emerging research indicates that the processes leading to dementia can commence much earlier—sometimes as early as our 40s. Understanding this gradual decline is crucial for early intervention and prevention. What Is Dementia? Dementia is an umbrella term for a range of conditions characterised by cognitive decline severe enough to interfere with daily life. The most common form is Alzheimer’s disease, but other types include vascular dementia , Lewy body dementia , and frontotemporal dementia . Symptoms range from memory loss and confusion to changes in behaviour, personality, and the ability to carry out everyday tasks. Women are disproportionally affected by it more, both directly and indirectly. Women not only experience higher dementia-related disability and mortality but also provide 70% of caregiving hours for those affected. Why Do We Develop Dementia? While age is a significant risk factor, it's not the only cause. Genetics do play a role, particularly in early-onset cases, but lifestyle factors are increasingly recognised as critical contributors. Chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, and even hearing loss can increase risk. Infections like herpes and syphilis have also been linked to higher dementia risk, particularly in older adults. What’s becoming clearer is that the lifestyle choices we make in our 30s, 40s, and 50s can lay the foundation for brain health—or decline—decades later. How Prevalent Is Dementia Today? Dementia is a growing public health issue. As of 2021, over 57 million people worldwide  were living with dementia . That number is expected to rise to 78 million by 2030  and 139 million by 2050 . There are over 10 million cases of dementia diagnosed each year worldwide . Between 2017 and 2023, a total of 4,042 new cases of dementia were diagnosed in Estonia. These numbers highlight the urgent need to shift our focus from late-stage treatment to early prevention . It Doesn't Start When You're Old Contrary to popular belief, dementia doesn't suddenly appear in old age. The changes in the brain that lead to cognitive decline can start decades before symptoms are noticeable. Many of the biological processes that contribute to dementia—such as inflammation , oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and poor blood flow—can begin in midlife, or even earlier. That’s why it’s so important to adopt brain-supporting habits in your 30s and 40s, not wait until retirement. A Slow and Steady Decline Dementia develops gradually. The earliest signs—such as occasional forgetfulness, mood changes, or difficulty concentrating—may be dismissed as normal aging or stress. But these small changes can be the first clues in a slow progression. Left unchecked, symptoms worsen over time, interfering with independence, communication, and quality of life. Recognising early warning signs and making lifestyle changes can significantly delay—or even prevent—severe cognitive decline. 🥦 Nutrition and Brain Health: What to Eat and What to Avoid One of the most powerful tools for supporting long-term brain health is nutrition . The food you eat doesn’t just fuel your body—it literally shapes your brain. ✅ Foods That Support Brain Health: 1. Leafy Greens  – Spinach, kale, arugula, and Swiss chard are rich in folate, vitamin K, and antioxidants. 2. Berries  – Especially blueberries and blackberries, which are packed with brain-protective flavonoids. 3. Fatty Fish  – Salmon, mackerel, and sardines are high in omega-3s (DHA), which are vital for brain structure and signalling. 4. Nuts and Seeds  – Walnuts, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and pumpkin seeds provide healthy fats, vitamin E, magnesium, and zinc. 5. Extra Virgin Olive Oil  – A staple of the Mediterranean diet, known for its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. 6. Cruciferous Vegetables  – Broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts support detoxification and reduce inflammation. 7. Whole Grains  – Brown rice, oats, and quinoa offer steady energy and B vitamins that support nerve health. 8. Fermented Foods  – Sauerkraut, kimchi, and water kefir promote gut health, which is closely linked to brain health through the gut-brain axis. 9. Dark Chocolate (in moderation)  – Rich in flavonoids that improve blood flow to the brain and enhance mood. 10. Herbs & Spices  – Turmeric (curcumin), rosemary, sage, and cinnamon all have anti-inflammatory or memory-enhancing benefits. 🚫 Foods and Habits to Reduce or Avoid: 1. Ultra-Processed Foods  – Instant meals, processed meats, and packaged snacks are often full of additives and trans fats that promote brain inflammation. 2. Refined Sugars & Sweetened Beverages  – These spike blood sugar and insulin levels, which are linked to cognitive decline. 3. Trans Fats  – Found in margarine, fried foods, and baked goods; associated with poor memory and increased dementia risk. 4. Artificial Sweeteners  – Especially aspartame, which may negatively impact mood and brain chemistry. 5. Excess Alcohol  – Long-term overconsumption can damage brain cells and reduce brain volume. 6. Very Low-Fat Diets  – The brain needs healthy fats to function well; avoid extreme fat restrictions. 🌟 Hope Through Prevention The good news? Up to 90% of Alzheimer’s cases may be preventable  with changes in lifestyle, according to neurologists Drs. Ayesha and Dean Sherzai . Their NEURO plan (Nutrition, Exercise, Unwind, Restore, Optimise) outlines practical, daily steps to support brain health and reduce dementia risk: Eat a brain-supportive diet Move your body regularly (30 minutes of low intensity every day and 150 minutes of high intensity every week) Manage stress and unwind Prioritise quality sleep Challenge your mind (learn a new language; take up a musical instrument; try calligraphy, knitting, painting; play brain games (Sudoku, chess, memory card games) and puzzles; read books; memorise poems or song lyrics); and stay socially connected 💬 Final Thoughts Understanding that dementia is not just a disease of old age—but a lifelong process—can shift how we approach brain health. By taking action earlier in life and focusing on nutrition, movement, and mindful living, we can protect our cognitive abilities and live with greater vitality for longer. 🧠 Your brain health journey begins now—not at 70. Lanzone Morgan, California elder abuse attorneys, have created a list of 62 tips on caring for a loved one who already has a dementia, covering areas like safety, hygiene needs, routine, managing emotions and behaviour etc. You can find it here . If you want to improve your diet, to better support your brain health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com

Eating is not only about survival. Yes, food is the body’s main source of energy and nutrients needed to build and repair tissues. But eating is also emotional, social, comforting, and sometimes simply habitual. We eat because food tastes good. We eat because it’s lunchtime. We eat because we’re stressed, bored, tired, or overwhelmed. And sometimes… we eat even when our body doesn’t truly need fuel. So what is really happening inside the body when we feel hungry—or when we suddenly crave something sweet? This article is part of my mini-series of articles on ' The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite', where I share the knowledge that I have gained in my online course at Tallinn Health University of Applied Sciences. You can read my previous articles here: The Digestive System – a Remarkably Intelligent System Supporting Our Health Every Day How Nutrients Are Digested and Absorbed in the Body Diverse Nutrition and the Gut Microbiome – The Invisible Foundation of Health Let’s take a closer look at how appetite is regulated. Hunger vs. Appetite – Not the Same Thing Hunger  is a biological signal that your body needs energy and nutrients. Appetite , on the other hand, is more psychological and emotional. It is a learned motivation to eat, often triggered by external factors such as: the smell of food the sight of a favourite dessert taste memories social situations emotional states For example, you may not be physically hungry, but the smell of freshly baked pastries or grilled meat can still create a strong desire to eat. At the same time, a stressed or sick person may truly need nutrients, but feel no appetite at all. The Brain Controls Eating More Than We Realise The regulation of eating behaviour is controlled by a complex system involving the digestive tract, blood chemistry, hormones, and the brain. The “feeding center” is located in several areas of the central nervous system, including: the hypothalamus the brainstem the limbic system (emotions and reward) the cerebral cortex (thinking and decision-making) These brain areas receive signals from the body and decide whether we should start eating… or stop. Why Do We Feel Hungry? Key Theories Explained Simply Over the years, researchers have developed several theories about what triggers hunger. 1. The Glucostatic Theory (Blood Sugar Theory) This theory suggests that hunger is triggered by a drop in blood glucose levels . When blood sugar drops, the brain receives a signal: “We need fuel.” After eating carbohydrates, insulin is released, glucose enters cells, and the brain receives a “safety” signal—leading to a feeling of satiety. 2. The Aminostatic Theory (Protein and Amino Acids) This theory suggests that appetite is influenced by the level of amino acids in the blood . After a protein-rich meal, amino acid levels rise and hunger tends to decrease. This helps explain why protein often keeps us full longer. In this article I write how much protein do we need to get from food and what are the highest protein containing animal and plant foods. 3. The Lipostatic Theory (Body Fat and Long-Term Energy Storage) This theory focuses on the role of fat tissue and leptin , a hormone produced mainly by fat cells. Leptin acts as a long-term regulator of energy balance. When energy stores are sufficient, leptin sends a signal to the brain: “We have enough stored energy—reduce appetite.” When someone diets or loses weight, leptin levels drop, and the brain responds with increased hunger and cravings. This is one of the reasons why long-term dieting can feel so difficult: the body is biologically designed to protect its energy reserves. Interestingly, many overweight individuals have high leptin levels but suffer from leptin resistance —meaning the brain does not respond properly to leptin signals, similar to insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes. 4. The Thermostatic Theory (Body Temperature Theory) This theory suggests that eating increases body temperature, and warmer blood affects the hypothalamus in a way that reduces appetite. Although this theory exists, evidence is less strong compared to other appetite-regulating mechanisms. Serotonin, Tryptophan, and the Craving for Carbohydrates One of the most fascinating appetite-regulating factors is serotonin , a neurotransmitter strongly connected to mood, appetite, and satiety. Serotonin production in the brain depends on the amino acid tryptophan , which we must get from food. Here’s the important detail: Why carbohydrates can influence serotonin After eating carbohydrates, insulin levels rise. Insulin affects amino acid balance in the bloodstream in a way that may help tryptophan enter the brain more easily. Once tryptophan reaches the brain, it can be converted into serotonin. This helps explain why many people experience a calmer mood and reduced appetite after eating a balanced meal containing complex carbohydrates. However, this does not  mean consuming foods and drinks with added sugar (cakes, cookies, sweet pastries, ice-cream, candies, soft drinks etc) is the solution. Because sugary foods and drinks are digested quickly, they offer a fast (but fleeting) boost, leading to a cycle of cravings as the brain seeks more serotonin. During times of stress or hormonal changes (like PMS), serotonin levels may drop, causing increased cravings for carbohydrates and sugar. The best support for stable serotonin production in the body comes from whole-food sources such as: whole grains (whole rye, barley, wheat, oat) legumes (lentils, beans) vegetables and fruit pair complex carbohydrates with tryptophan-rich protein-packed foods like turkey, chicken, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts, seeds) foods rich in B vitamins (needed for serotonin synthesis). You can find the foods containing different B-vitamins under my Resources page Vitamins one pager. Eating only tryptophan-rich protein foods (such as meat, eggs, or cheese) is not always an effective way to increase serotonin levels, because tryptophan must compete with other amino acids to cross the blood-brain barrier. Complex carbohydrates help by triggering insulin release, which lowers the levels of competing amino acids in the blood and allows more tryptophan to enter the brain. This is why combining tryptophan-rich protein with complex carbohydrates (such as eggs with whole-grain bread or turkey with quinoa) may better support stable serotonin production. Serotonin and Sleep: The Melatonin Connection Serotonin is also used to produce melatonin , the hormone responsible for sleep regulation. That means good nutrition doesn’t only influence appetite and mood—it can also influence sleep quality. Appetite and Seasons: Why Winter Can Feel Harder Serotonin levels tend to be higher in summer and lower in winter, especially in Northern countries with limited sunlight. This is one reason why many people: crave more carbohydrates in winter feel more tired experience mood drops or seasonal sadness find weight management harder during darker months Sunlight has a powerful influence on mood and appetite regulation. Leptin, Sleep, and Why Poor Sleep Increases Hunger Leptin does not only respond to fat storage and energy balance—it is also affected by sleep. Short sleep duration can reduce leptin levels and increase appetite. Most adults need around 7–8 hours of sleep a night , although individual needs may vary. Poor sleep is one of the most underestimated reasons why weight loss becomes difficult. Ghrelin – The Hunger Hormone That Makes Dieting Hard Another major appetite hormone is ghrelin , produced mainly in the stomach. Ghrelin increases appetite and rises when we restrict food intake. This is why low-calorie diets often lead to strong hunger signals: the body responds by producing more ghrelin. Ghrelin is also connected to growth hormone release and energy regulation. When we eat less, ghrelin rises. When we eat enough, ghrelin decreases. Why Fullness Doesn’t Happen Immediately Many people think fullness happens during a meal. But in reality: true satiety often appears 60–90 minutes after eating. That is why eating too quickly can easily lead to overeating. This is also why mindful eating habits matter: eat slowly chew well avoid distractions stop eating before feeling full Eating in a calm environment supports digestion and satiety signals. Long Gaps Between Meals Can Backfire If someone eats very little during the day and then comes home extremely hungry, they are likely to eat too fast and too much. This can lead to blood sugar spikes and increased insulin demand. Over time, repeated patterns of overeating in the evening may contribute to insulin resistance and weight gain. Regular meals with balanced macronutrients can help stabilise appetite and energy levels throughout the day. So Why Do We Eat When We’re Not Hungry? Because eating is not only controlled by the stomach. We eat because of: hormones (ghrelin, leptin, insulin) brain chemistry (serotonin, dopamine, reward pathways) habits and routines emotions and stress smell, taste, and food availability sleep quality and seasonal changes Appetite is a complex system designed to keep us alive—and sometimes that system is triggered even when the body doesn’t truly need food. You might also be interested in reading an article on ' What is your relationship with food? ' Key Takeaway If you want to support healthy appetite regulation, focus on the basics: balanced meals (protein + complex carbohydrates + healthy fats) enough sleep regular meal timing stress management more whole foods, less ultra-processed foods mindful eating habits Because sometimes the problem isn’t “lack of willpower”—it’s biology. Learn more here about a balanced nutrition . Learn more here about how you can improve your sleep . Learn more here how you can better support your body through stress . If you want want to improve your diet, but are unsure what to focus on first, what could work with your resources and lifestyle, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personal nutrition counselling. Learn more about my services here: https://www.katrinpeo.com/services .

Blood sugar (glucose) is your main source of energy. It influences how hungry or energetic you feel. Blood sugar is created when you break down any carbohydrate you eat- from a healthy carb like quinoa to a chocolate-chip cookie. The importance with blood-sugar is to keep it balanced: not too high and also not too low. It's also important to understand that glucose rises after meals are normal: what matters is how high , how long , and how often and the person’s metabolic health overall Concerns arise when glucose remains elevated for long periods or when the body regularly struggles to bring levels back to baseline. Persistent dysregulated glucose metabolism — especially over years — is associated with an increased risk of conditions such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic dysfunction. However, many symptoms like fatigue, mood changes, or hormonal imbalances can have multiple causes and require comprehensive assessment. Optimising our glycose levels allow us to lower the symptoms we are experiencing. If you eat with every meal adequate amount of protein, fat, fibre together with carbohydrates- you naturally help to keep the blood sugar more stable and have consistent energy throughout your day. How is blood sugar regulated in your body? Your pancreas creates hormone called insulin, that gets released into the blood stream to regulate blood sugar when you eat. The normal range for blood sugar (empty stomach) is 4 - 5,5 mmol/l. Insulin transfers the blood sugar into blood stream and into your cells for immediate energy or storage for later use. If you eat too much sugar or other refined carb-rich foods that get way faster converted into blood sugar, then your pancreas goes into overdrive to produce all the necessary insulin for the glycose to be stored in the cells. Such an insulin surge tells your body that there is plenty of energy available and that it should stop burning fat and rather start storing it. Yes, insulin is a fat storage hormone. Low and high blood sugar Low blood sugar occurs when the insulin surge causes too much of blood sugar to be transported out of your blood. It can leave you feeling hungry, tired, shaky and anxious. As a consequence, you crave more sugar and carbohydrates, hoping that these will get you to a better place. But in reality, they start the cycle all over again. And your body ends up storing more fat. Contrary, high blood sugar occurs when your insulin is unable to transport enough blood sugar out of your blood. Blood sugar and weight Loss To help with long term healthy weight loss or healthy weight maintenance, you need to keep your blood sugar in balance in between the meals and where there is no excess insulin produced by the body. How can you balance your blood sugar? If you avoid or keep simple carbohydrates and sugar consumption to a minimum, you can naturally help to balance your blood sugar. Definitely, do not starve yourself as this causes your body to produce stress hormones that prevent weight loss. The resulting low blood sugar from starvation causes your body to go into muscle burning, slowing down your metabolism. Eating balanced meals during the day is what you should be focusing on. Simple carbohydrates include different types of sugar, such as sucrose (table sugar), fructose (fruit sugar (also in honey)), lactose (dairy sugar), glycose. You can read my blog post on sugar and why it's best to lower its consumption it here . All of the simple carbohydrates get metabolised fast and therefore most likely cause an insulin surge in the body. Think how you feel next time when you eat for example an egg with avocado for breakfast or when you drink a glass of orange juice and have a white bread with jam on it. The fructose in the juice and the sucrose in the jam will have you probably craving and eating throughout the day. The easiest and best way to stabilise your blood sugar is to eat protein, fat, fibre and greens with each of your meal. Fat - if you consume fat alone, it has no influence at all on circulating blood sugar. If you eat it with your meal, it slows down the absorption of your meal therefore helping to avoid spikes in blood sugar. I am talking here about the healthy fats (olive oil, nuts, seeds, avocado, ghee, coconut oil). Protein - it helps to keep blood sugar levels steady. Again, if you consume protein by itself, it has no impact on blood sugar. But you should be mindful and not consume too much protein as it may converted into glucose. A good size of protein per meal is the size of your palm. I have written a blog post on the highest protein containing foods . as well as the importance of consuming sufficient amount of protein at every meal at different ages in your life . Fibre - same as fat, fibre helps to slow down the absorption of nutrients, including glucose. All vegetables and fruits contain fibre and are best consumed in a whole state, rather than juiced. When you would want to juice your vegetables and fruits is when you are unwell and need a fast dose of vitamins and minerals into your body. But at other times, consume whole vegetables and fruits, make smoothies mixing the two and adding some protein and fat into it to slow down the absorption of carbs. You can read more about the fibre, why we need it and from which foods we can get it here . Greens - when you add greens like spinach, kale, broccoli sprouts, sunflower sprouts, you add minerals and vitamins to your meals. For example magnesium in green vegetables increases your insulin sensitivity. Other tips helping you to keep your blood sugar in balance Different foods affect our blood sugar different ways. For some people eating a banana takes their blood sugar up high, for the others it does not create such a spike. Our bodies are different and how food affects us, is influenced by many factors- what our diet looks like during the longer period of time, what is the state of our health, how much we exercise, how much we sleep, what are our stress levels etc. Continuous glycose monitor Continuous glucose monitors are devices that measure glucose levels continuously throughout the day by sensing glucose in the fluid just under the skin. They can provide insight into how meals, movement, sleep and stress influence glucose patterns, which may help inform food choices for some individuals. However, these devices were originally developed as medical tools for people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes and for individuals with gestational diabetes , where frequent glucose monitoring is a cornerstone of clinical management. For people without diabetes, CGM devices can show normal glucose fluctuations, but interpreting the data accurately can be complex and sometimes misleading, because healthy glucose levels naturally rise and fall after meals. Experts caution that using CGMs without clear clinical indication may not provide meaningful health benefits for the general population and should not replace standard metabolic assessments. If you are considering using a CGM to explore your glucose patterns, it’s best to do so in collaboration with a qualified healthcare professional (such as an endocrinologist or physician) . They can help you determine whether it is appropriate for your situation, explain what normal and abnormal glucose values mean for you specifically, and guide how to apply the insights in a way that supports your overall health goals rather than focusing on isolated glucose readings alone. Some wellness-focused platforms, such as Levels and Veri , offer CGM-based programs for people who want to explore their metabolic responses, but the results should still be interpreted with care and in context with a healthcare professional. Eat your food on the plate in the right order The order in which you eat foods in a mixed meal can influence how your body responds to carbohydrates. Research shows that starting a meal with non-starchy vegetables and protein, and eating starchy carbohydrates later, may lead to lower post-meal glucose and insulin responses compared with eating carbohydrates first. This effect appears to be due to a combination of slower gastric emptying, increased fibre and protein intake, and hormonal signals from the gut that help regulate glucose absorption. For example, eating salad and vegetables before starchy foods like pasta may help your body absorb carbohydrates more gradually and reduce sharp short-term blood sugar rises. However, this strategy should be viewed as one part of a balanced eating approach rather than a standalone magic solution, and individual responses can vary. Opt for more savoury breakfast Meals that combine protein, healthy fats and fibre tend to slow glucose absorption and may lead to smaller post-meal glucose improvements compared with carbohydrate-heavy meals, but individual responses vary. Examples of savoury breakfast: Lentils or quinoa or buckwheat with soft boiled egg and avocado Oats with seeds and almond butter Smoothie that contain not more than half a cup of fruit or berries and contains good fat and protein Warm chia pudding with hemp hearts and ghee Rice cake with avocado, salmon and sesame seeds Sourdough bread with scrambled eggs, kale, cherry tomatoes, kimchi Sourdough bread with hummus, sauerkraut, hemp seeds and sprouts Chia seed pudding with raspberries, nut better and hemp seeds Ground chia seeds blended with cocoa and avocado Move after the eating After eating your energy goes from your head and limbs into digestion system. That's why many can feel tired after a meal. Your muscles are your ally here, where they help to soak up the circulating glycose from your blood stream. A 10 minute walk after a meal is a great choice or taking your dog outside for a walk. Eat fat or protein with your carbohydrates Don't eat sweet or starchy food without adding some protein, fat or fibre on it. You could put greek yoghurt on your cookie if you want to eat it. Eat your sourdough bread with some goats cheese spread and avocado on it. If you have some rice, have some eggs, chicken, fish with it. The less high blood sugar spikes you have after breakfast and lunch, the better you feel throughout the day. If you are looking to understand more about better eating habits for your body, lifestyle, don't hesitate to contact me for nutrition counselling and health coaching at info@katrinpeo.com. Learn more about my services under Services .

Your liver is one of the most hardworking organs in your body. It performs hundreds of essential tasks every single day , including processing nutrients from food, helping regulate blood sugar and cholesterol, producing bile for digestion, storing vitamins and minerals, and breaking down substances that could be harmful to the body. Many people associate the liver mainly with alcohol metabolism, but its role goes far beyond that. Your liver is involved in energy production, hormone regulation, immune function, digestion, and detoxification processes  — and keeping it healthy is essential for long-term wellbeing. The good news? Your liver is also remarkably resilient and has the ability to regenerate. With the right lifestyle habits, you can support it effectively and reduce the risk of liver-related disease. What Does the Liver Actually Do? Your liver is responsible for a wide range of processes that keep your body functioning smoothly. Some of its most important roles include: 1. Metabolism of Nutrients The liver processes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats after digestion and helps convert them into usable forms of energy. It also stores glycogen, which can be released later when your blood sugar drops. 2. Producing Bile Bile is a substance produced by the liver that helps you digest and absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). It is released into the intestines through the gallbladder. 3. Regulating Blood Sugar and Cholesterol The liver helps maintain stable blood sugar levels by storing and releasing glucose. It also plays a central role in producing and clearing cholesterol and triglycerides. 4. Storing Nutrients Your liver stores important nutrients, including: Iron Vitamin A Vitamin B12 Vitamin D Copper Folate These reserves are vital for immunity, blood formation, energy levels, and brain health. 5. Supporting Detoxification and Waste Removal Your liver transforms substances such as alcohol, medications, and metabolic waste products into forms that can be eliminated through bile or urine. Importantly, this “detoxification” is not something that happens only occasionally — it is a continuous, daily process . A healthy body does not need special detox diets or cleansing protocols for the liver to do its job. Do You Need a Liver Detox? There is a widespread belief that we need to “cleanse” or “detox” the liver. In reality, the liver does not work like a filter that becomes clogged with toxins. If your liver is truly struggling, it is usually due to liver disease or long-term damage , not because you missed a green juice or didn’t drink lemon water. Most commercial liver detox programs are not supported by strong scientific evidence. In some cases, extreme detox protocols can even be harmful, especially if they involve: very low-calorie diets excessive supplementation prolonged fasting herbal products that affect liver enzymes large doses of “cleansing” compounds The most effective way to support your liver is through consistent, evidence-based lifestyle habits , not short-term detox trends. Signs of Possible Liver Problems (When to See a Doctor) Many wellness articles list symptoms like fatigue, bloating, acne, mood swings, or brain fog as signs of a “sluggish liver.” These symptoms can occur for many reasons and are not specific indicators of liver dysfunction. However, there are certain signs that may indicate liver disease and should not be ignored: yellowing of the skin or eyes (jaundice) dark urine or pale stools unexplained persistent fatigue swelling in the legs or abdomen pain or discomfort in the upper right abdomen unexplained nausea or appetite loss easy bruising or bleeding abnormal liver blood test results If you suspect liver issues, it’s always best to consult a healthcare professional and request proper testing rather than self-diagnosing. What Can Harm the Liver? Liver damage can develop gradually over time. Some of the most common and well-researched risk factors include: 1. Excess Alcohol Alcohol is one of the leading causes of liver inflammation and long-term liver disease. Even moderate drinking can increase risk if combined with metabolic problems or genetic predisposition. 2. Fatty Liver Disease and Metabolic Dysfunction Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasingly common worldwide and is strongly linked to: excess body fat insulin resistance type 2 diabetes high triglycerides high blood pressure Today, fatty liver is considered one of the most important liver health concerns in modern populations. 3. Medications and Overuse of Painkillers Certain medications, especially in high doses or long-term use, can strain the liver. A common example is excessive acetaminophen/paracetamol use, which can be toxic to the liver. Always follow recommended doses and consult your doctor when using long-term medication. 4. Viral Hepatitis Hepatitis A, B, and C can cause liver inflammation and damage. Vaccination (where available), safe food handling, and medical screening are important protective measures. 5. Highly Processed Diet and Excess Sugar A diet high in refined carbohydrates, added sugars, and ultra-processed foods may contribute to liver fat accumulation and inflammation over time, especially when combined with sedentary lifestyle. How to Support Liver Health 1. Maintain Healthy Blood Sugar Balance One of the best ways to support your liver is by improving metabolic health. Stabilising blood sugar reduces fat accumulation in the liver and lowers inflammation. Helpful habits include: eating balanced meals with protein, fibre, and healthy fats reducing sugary drinks and desserts prioritising whole foods choosing complex carbohydrates over refined ones 2. Eat More Fibre-Rich Plant Foods Fibre supports digestion, cholesterol metabolism, and gut health — all of which indirectly support the liver. Excellent choices include: vegetables berries legumes oats flaxseeds chia seeds whole grains 3. Include Liver-Friendly Nutrients in Your Diet Some nutrients are particularly important for liver function: Choline  (eggs, salmon, soybeans) Omega-3 fats  (fatty fish, walnuts, flaxseeds) Antioxidants  (berries, herbs, leafy greens) Polyphenols  (olive oil, green tea, coffee, cocoa, colourful plants) These compounds may help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. 4. Eat Cruciferous Vegetables Regularly Vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and kale contain sulphur-containing compounds and antioxidants that support normal detoxification pathways in the liver. They are not “cleansers,” but they do support normal metabolic function. 5. Drink Coffee (If It Works for You) One of the strongest nutrition-related findings in liver research is that moderate coffee intake is associated with a lower risk of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even liver cancer in multiple observational studies. For many people, 1–2 cups of coffee daily  may have protective effects. Of course, individual tolerance matters. 6. Stay Hydrated Water supports digestion and helps the body eliminate metabolic waste through the kidneys. While hydration doesn’t “flush toxins,” it supports normal physiological elimination. 7. Move Your Body Physical activity improves insulin sensitivity and helps reduce liver fat. Even moderate movement can make a measurable difference. Aim for: walking daily strength training 2–3 times per week moderate cardio several times per week The most important factor is consistency. 8. Prioritise Sleep and Stress Regulation Chronic stress and poor sleep are linked to inflammation, hormonal imbalance, increased cravings, and insulin resistance — all of which can affect liver health indirectly. Simple daily practices such as breathing exercises, time in nature, journaling, and consistent bedtime routines can be surprisingly powerful. What About Supplements and Herbs for Liver Health? Many herbs are marketed as liver detoxifiers. Some of these contain compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and milk thistle (silymarin) is among the most researched. However, it is important to understand that: evidence is often limited or inconsistent supplements do not “cleanse” the liver herbs can interact with medications poor-quality supplements may contain contaminants If you choose to use supplements, prioritise reputable brands with third-party testing and consult a healthcare professional if you take medications or have liver disease. The Best “Liver Detox” Is a Healthy Lifestyle Your liver is designed to detoxify and regenerate — but it needs your support through daily habits, not extreme cleansing routines. The most effective liver-supportive lifestyle includes: balanced nutrition rich in whole foods limiting alcohol maintaining a healthy body weight supporting blood sugar balance regular movement good sleep and stress management avoiding unnecessary medications and supplements regular check-ups when needed Final Thoughts Your liver is essential for digestion, metabolism, hormone regulation, and natural detoxification. Most people don’t need detox diets or harsh cleanses — instead, the liver thrives when you support it with consistent, realistic lifestyle habits. The goal is not to “clean” your liver.The goal is to reduce the burden on it  and support it through nutrition, movement, and a healthier everyday routine. Your liver works hard for you — and small daily choices can make a big difference. If you need help and guidance around your health challenges, want to improve your nutrition, don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Our skin is the largest organ of the body and serves as a complex ecosystem that protects us from environmental stressors while interacting with our immune system. Just like the gut, our skin is colonized by trillions of microorganisms — bacteria, fungi, viruses and even microscopic mites — collectively known as the skin microbiome . These microbes are not just passive passengers; they are active members of our skin’s defence and regulatory systems. What Is the Skin Microbiome? The skin microbiome is a diverse community of microorganisms that live on the surface and within layers of the skin. The specific composition varies by body site (e.g., oily vs dry areas), age, sex, immune status and environmental exposures. Each person’s skin microbiome is unique, shaped by genetics as well as lifestyle and environmental factors. Why the Skin Microbiome Is Important? Far from being “just bacteria,” the skin microbiome performs essential functions: Barrier protection  — Beneficial microbes help reinforce the skin’s physical and chemical barrier, making it harder for harmful pathogens to invade. Immune regulation  — Commensal microorganisms interact with the skin’s immune cells and help maintain balanced immune responses. They stimulate antimicrobial peptide production and contribute to immune tolerance, reducing inappropriate inflammation. Competition with pathogens  — Good microbes compete with harmful organisms for space and nutrients, which can reduce the risk of infection and inflammatory flare-ups. Support for healing  — Some organisms contribute to processes involved in wound healing and barrier restoration. Emerging research also suggests that the skin microbiome may interact with systemic immune and metabolic pathways, including the gut–skin axis, though many mechanisms are still being investigated. What Happens When the Skin Microbiome Is Out of Balance? When the delicate balance of the skin microbiome is disrupted — a state called dysbiosis  — the risk of skin conditions can increase. Imbalances are associated with inflammatory dermatoses such as: Atopic dermatitis (eczema) Acne vulgaris Psoriasis Rosacea In dysbiosis, there is often a reduction in microbial diversity or an overgrowth of specific species capable of triggering immune responses and inflammation. What Can Disrupt the Skin Microbiome? Multiple factors can affect the microbial balance on the skin: Hygiene practices  — Frequent washing with harsh soaps or antibacterial products can strip beneficial microbes and alter pH. Skincare products  — Ingredients such as high-pH cleansers, strong detergents, fragrances and preservatives may disrupt microbial communities. Environmental exposures  — Pollution, UV radiation, climate and even urban living environments can influence microbial diversity. Age and hormones  — Microbiome composition naturally changes across the lifespan and with hormonal shifts. Systemic health conditions  — Conditions like diabetes, immune dysfunction or chronic inflammation can affect the skin environment. How Can We Support a Healthy Skin Microbiome? Taking care of your skin microbiome involves both what you do to your skin externally  and how you support your body internally : Gentle Skincare Practices Use pH-balanced, gentle cleansers. Avoid over-sanitising or antibacterial products unless medically necessary. Choose skin products formulated to support the skin barrier (e.g., ceramides, fatty acids, gentle moisturisers). Balanced Nutrition and Hydration While the direct impact of food on the skin microbiome is still an active area of research, diet clearly influences systemic inflammation and immune function, which in turn affect skin health. Diets rich in colourful plant foods, antioxidants, omega-3 fats and fibre support overall microbial diversity and reduce inflammatory burden. Learn more about the skin and gut health in this article . Healthy Lifestyle Factors Quality sleep and stress management support immune balance. Regular movement and hydration ( drinking enough water ) support circulation and skin function. Minimising exposure to pollutants and excessive sun without protection can help preserve barrier integrity. What About Probiotics and Prebiotics for the Skin? Topical and oral probiotics/prebiotics are being studied for their potential to support the skin microbiome. Early evidence suggests that certain probiotic strains and prebiotic ingredients may help modulate inflammation and support barrier function. However, results vary between individuals and strains, and more clinical research is needed to identify which  products and regimens are effective. Importantly, these interventions do not replace foundational habits  like gentle skincare and a nutrient-dense diet. A Balanced View: What We Know  vs What We Speculate The skin microbiome is a rapidly evolving field. We know that: Skin microbes contribute to defense, immune regulation and barrier function. Microbial imbalance is associated with common skin conditions. External and internal lifestyle factors influence microbial communities. What is still emerging : precise mechanisms linking the skin microbiome to distant organs which specific probiotics/prebiotics are most beneficial for the skin how diet and systemic microbiomes (gut) directly influence skin microbes Final Thoughts Our skin microbiome is a dynamic, interactive ecosystem that plays a key role in skin health and overall wellbeing. Caring for it means moving beyond superficial treatments and understanding how lifestyle, environment and daily habits shape not only your skin’s appearance but also its resilience and function. By supporting the skin barrier, preserving microbial balance, and nurturing whole-body health, we can create lasting benefits that go beyond cosmetics.

Skin is our largest organ and often the first place where internal imbalances become visible. While skin problems are frequently treated only from the outside, growing scientific evidence shows that many skin conditions are influenced by processes happening inside  the body – particularly inflammation, immune function, hormonal balance, and gut health. This does not mean that every skin issue has a single internal cause or that topical treatments are unnecessary. Rather, skin health is best understood as part of a whole‑body system , where nutrition, digestion, lifestyle and internal regulation all interact. Skin as a Window into Overall Health The skin plays a vital role in protection, temperature regulation, immune defence and communication with the environment. Because it is metabolically active and closely connected to the immune and nervous systems, disturbances inside the body can manifest as: acne eczema and atopic dermatitis psoriasis rosacea chronic dryness, irritation or delayed healing In many cases, these conditions are associated with systemic inflammation , altered immune responses, or metabolic stress rather than being purely cosmetic concerns. People struggling with chronic skin conditions are referred to dermatologists, who prescribe topical antibiotics, gels, creams and often also prescribe medications and/or antibiotics that need to be taken internally. But little did I know back in 2016 that instead of focusing on what to put on top of the skin to hopefully heal the skin condition, we need to focus on the inside of our bodies- what we eat and drink, how we take care of our gut and how we take care of our liver. No, food is not the only area people with skin issues need to focus on, but this is a good starting point, especially if you have not been really thinking whether and how the food you eat, affects your body and your skin. In this article I cover the importance of taking care of your bodily organs to support the health of your skin. The Gut–Skin Axis: What Does It Mean? Research increasingly supports the concept of a gut–skin axis  – a bidirectional communication pathway between the gut microbiome , the immune system and the skin. The gut microbiome refers to the trillions of microorganisms living primarily in the large intestine. These microbes help: break down dietary fibres produce bioactive compounds such as short‑chain fatty acids regulate immune signalling influence inflammatory processes throughout the body When the gut ecosystem is balanced and diverse, it supports immune tolerance and anti‑inflammatory pathways. When this balance is disrupted (a state known as dysbiosis ), immune regulation may shift toward inflammation, which can contribute to skin symptoms in susceptible individuals. Inflammation as a Common Link One of the strongest connections between gut health and skin health is chronic low‑grade inflammation . Inflammation is a normal and necessary biological response. However, when it becomes persistent, it may contribute to: increased skin sensitivity impaired skin barrier function flare‑ups of inflammatory skin conditions Diet quality, gut microbial balance, stress, sleep and metabolic health all influence inflammatory signalling in the body. Intestinal Permeability – What We Know You may have heard the term “leaky gut.”  In scientific literature, this is referred to as increased intestinal permeability . Some studies suggest that changes in gut barrier function may allow bacterial components or microbial metabolites to interact more directly with the immune system. This interaction may contribute to systemic inflammation in certain conditions. However, this mechanism is complex, varies between individuals, and is still being actively researched. Rather than viewing intestinal permeability as a single cause of skin disease, it is more accurate to see it as one possible contributing factor  within a broader physiological context. The Role of Nutrition in Skin and Gut Health Nutrition strongly influences both the gut microbiome and inflammatory balance. Diets consistently associated with better gut and skin health tend to be: rich in dietary fibre high in plant diversity based on minimally processed foods sufficient in key micronutrients Foods that support microbial diversity and metabolic health include: vegetables of different colours berries and fruits legumes (beans, lentils) whole grains nuts and seeds herbs and spices fermented foods such as kefir, yoghurt, sauerkraut and kimchi These foods provide fibres, polyphenols and other compounds that nourish beneficial gut bacteria and support immune regulation. Ultra‑Processed Foods and Skin Health Highly processed foods often contain: refined carbohydrates low levels of fibre emulsifiers and additives excess saturated fats and added sugars Regular consumption of ultra‑processed foods has been associated with increased inflammation and reduced gut microbial diversity, both of which may negatively affect skin health over time. Probiotics, Prebiotics and a Food‑First Approach Probiotics  are live microorganisms that may provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. Prebiotics  are fibres and compounds that feed beneficial bacteria already present in the gut. While probiotic supplements can be useful in specific clinical situations, they do not replace a varied, nutrient‑dense diet. A food‑first approach  remains the most reliable way to support long‑term gut and skin health. Face Mapping – A Note on Traditional Approaches Face mapping systems from traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine are sometimes used to associate specific facial areas with internal organs. While culturally interesting, these systems are not validated diagnostic tools  in modern medicine and should not be used to draw clinical conclusions. Source: Mukti Organics In addition you can read how can you support your skin topically and learn more about skin microbiome from one of my articles earlier this year. A Whole‑Body Perspective on Skin Health Skin health is influenced by many interconnected factors: gut microbiome balance immune regulation inflammatory load hormonal signalling nutrient status stress, sleep and lifestyle habits There is no single food, supplement or intervention that works for everyone. Sustainable improvements come from consistent, personalised choices  that support overall physiological balance. Final Thoughts Healthy skin is not only about what we apply topically, but also about how well the body functions internally. Supporting digestion, gut microbial diversity and anti‑inflammatory pathways through real, nutrient‑dense food and balanced lifestyle habits can positively influence skin health over time. Small, daily choices matter — and their effects often extend far beyond the skin. If you feel that your current diet could better support your gut health, inflammation balance or skin health, you are welcome to contact me for nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Why the Food We Eat Shapes Far More Than Digestion When we think about digestion, we often imagine the stomach breaking food down into smaller pieces. In reality, digestion is a highly complex, multi‑stage process involving enzymes, hormones, transporters, organs – and trillions of microorganisms living inside our gut. Only when this system works well can the food we eat be transformed into usable building blocks: energy, structural components for cells, signalling molecules, and compounds that support immunity, brain health and metabolism. This article is the third part of my mini‑series on the human body and nutrition. In the previous posts, I explored: how the digestive system functions as a whole how nutrients are digested and absorbed in the body Here, we take the next step and focus on the gut microbiome  – still an often overlooked but very essential part of human health. What Is the Gut Microbiome? The gut microbiome refers to the community of microorganisms – mainly bacteria, but also viruses, fungi and archaea – that live primarily in the large intestine. Each person hosts a unique microbial ecosystem, shaped by genetics, early life exposure, diet, lifestyle, medication use and environment. Your microbiome is as unique to you as your fingerprint. A healthy gut microbiome is not defined by one “perfect” bacterial strain, but by diversity, balance and functionality . The microbes in the gut help us digest food components we otherwise could not process, especially dietary fibres and resistant starches. Learn more about gut microbiome here . Why Microbial Diversity Matters Microbial diversity in the gut is strongly associated with better overall health. A diverse microbiome is more resilient, adaptable and capable of performing a wide range of functions, including: breaking down complex carbohydrates and fibres producing short‑chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, acetate and propionate supporting gut barrier integrity training and regulating the immune system influencing inflammation levels in the body interacting with hormones and neurotransmitters via the gut–brain axis Low microbial diversity has been linked to digestive disorders, metabolic issues, chronic inflammation , allergies and autoimmune conditions (such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis etc). The Gut Microbiome and the Immune System Around 70% of the immune system is located in and around the gut. The microbiome plays a key role in educating immune cells to distinguish between harmless substances (like food proteins) and real threats (such as pathogens). When the gut ecosystem is imbalanced, immune regulation may suffer. This can contribute to increased susceptibility to infections, food sensitivities, allergies and inflammatory conditions. Gut Microbiome and Heart Health The gut microbiome plays an important role in cardiovascular health. Certain gut bacteria help regulate cholesterol metabolism, influence blood pressure and reduce chronic low-grade inflammation – all key factors in heart disease risk. An imbalanced microbiome may produce metabolites such as TMAO (trimethylamine N-oxide), which has been linked to a higher risk of atherosclerosis, while a diverse, fibre-rich microbiome supports the production of short-chain fatty acids that help protect blood vessels and support healthy lipid metabolism. 👉 Learn more how you can support your heart health here . Gut Microbiome and Brain Health The gut and brain are in constant two-way communication through the gut–brain axis. Gut microbes influence brain health by producing neurotransmitter precursors, regulating inflammation, and interacting with the nervous and immune systems. A healthy and diverse microbiome is associated with better mood regulation, stress resilience and cognitive function, while imbalances in gut bacteria have been linked to anxiety, depression, neuro-inflammation and even neurodegenerative conditions, like dementia. 👉 Learn how you can boost your brain health here . 👉 Learn more here about dementia and what can you do today to reduce the risks of developing it in the future. Gut Health, Weight Regulation and Metabolism Research shows that the gut microbiome influences how efficiently we extract energy from food, how we regulate appetite and how we respond to insulin. Interestingly, studies have found that people with overweight or obesity often harbour a higher abundance of bacterial genes involved in carbohydrate breakdown. After the digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine have done most of their work, the remaining food mass moves into the large intestine. Here, gut bacteria use leftover carbohydrates, proteins and fats as substrates for their own metabolism. During this process, they produce various compounds that can pass through the intestinal wall and enter the human bloodstream. Many of these bacterial metabolites are similar to those produced during human carbohydrate digestion. In practical terms, this means that certain gut bacteria are able to extract additional energy from carbohydrates that the human body itself cannot digest. As a result, the total amount of energy obtained from food may be higher due to bacterial activity. Excessive energy intake and an imbalanced diet are likely to promote the growth of bacterial populations that are more efficient at harvesting energy. It is important to emphasise that body weight regulation is complex and multifactorial. The gut microbiome does not act in isolation, but it clearly interacts with diet quality, meal composition, physical activity, sleep and stress to influence long-term metabolic health. Gut microbiome and skin health Skin health is closely connected to gut health via the gut–skin axis. The gut microbiome influences immune responses, inflammation and nutrient availability, all of which affect the skin. Dysbiosis in the gut has been associated with skin conditions such as acne, eczema, psoriasis and rosacea. Supporting gut microbial balance through diverse, nutrient-rich foods may help reduce systemic inflammation and support clearer, more resilient skin. Probiotics, Prebiotics and Food First Probiotics are live microorganisms that may confer health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. Prebiotics, on the other hand, are fibres and compounds that feed beneficial bacteria already present in the gut . While probiotic supplements can be useful and needed in specific situations and gut conditions, they are not a substitute for a varied, nutrient‑dense diet. A food‑first approach remains the most reliable way to support microbial diversity. Key microbiome‑supportive foods include: vegetables of different colours (think of rainbow of colours in your weekly menu) berries and fruits (different types, different colour) legumes (beans, lentils) whole grains nuts and seeds herbs and spices fermented foods such as kefir, yoghurt, sauerkraut and kimchi 👉 Learn more about probiotics and fermented foods here. 👉 Learn more about prebiotic foods here. Why Food Quality Matters Digestion and absorption can only work optimally when the body is given real, nutrient‑dense food. Highly processed products often lack fibre, contain refined carbohydrates, additives and emulsifiers, and provide little support for gut health. When choosing what to eat, it is worth pausing and asking: Is this real food that provides my body with essential nutrients and building blocks? Or is it a highly processed, food‑like product with limited nutritional value? Small, consistent choices made daily have a profound impact on digestive function, microbial balance and long‑term health. Final Thoughts A well‑functioning digestive system is not just about avoiding discomfort. It is a foundation for energy production, immune defence, mental wellbeing and metabolic health. By supporting digestion and nourishing the gut microbiome with diverse, minimally processed foods, we support the body’s ability to thrive. Understanding how complex and interconnected this system is can help us make more informed, mindful choices – one meal at a time. If you feel that your current diet needs a review to understand what can be improved, so it's more balanced and supporting gut health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com . Additional reading from scientific research: A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins The gut microbiome and eating behavior outcomes: A systematic review Impact of Gut Microbiome Interventions on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Metabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Enzymes, hormones and the remarkably coordinated journey of food This article continues my mini‑series focused on the body, the digestive system, and the processes that influence appetite  — with a particular emphasis on how nutrients are digested and absorbed in the human body. In the previous post, I focused on the digestive system as a whole  — how its different parts are involved in digestion, how long food typically spends in each section of the digestive tract, and why factors such as proper chewing  play an important role in supporting digestive efficiency and overall health. If you’d like to revisit that foundational overview, you can read it here: 👉 https://www.katrinpeo.com/post/the-digestive-system-a-remarkably-intelligent-system-supporting-our-health-every-day In this article, we take a step back and look at the bigger picture : how the digestive system works as a coordinated whole, how enzymes and hormones guide digestion, and how macronutrients and micronutrients are ultimately broken down and absorbed to support health and homeostasis. Digestion as a foundation of health Digestion is the first critical step in maintaining homeostasis  — the stable internal environment that allows our cells, tissues and organs to function optimally. Its ultimate goal is to provide cells with the building blocks and energy they need for survival, growth and repair. Each section of the digestive tract has a highly specialised role. When digestion proceeds smoothly, nutrients are efficiently broken down, absorbed and utilised. When something goes wrong, the consequences can ripple throughout the body. Disturbances in digestion and absorption may lead to: maldigestion (insufficient breakdown of food) malabsorption (insufficient uptake of nutrients from food) motility disorders (diarrhoea, constipation, nausea, vomiting) heartburn and reflux Long‑term imbalanced eating patterns are one of the key contributors to digestive dysfunction — highlighting why organism‑centred, balanced nutrition is essential for both digestive and overall health. The journey of food through the digestive tract Mouth The mouth is the starting point of digestion. It performs: mechanical breakdown  (chewing) moistening and lubrication  with saliva initial carbohydrate digestion  via salivary amylase With thorough chewing, up to 50% of starch digestion  can already begin in the mouth. Stomach The stomach provides an acidic environment  that: denatures proteins activates pepsin from its inactive precursor pepsinogen initiates protein digestion destroys many ingested microorganisms Only a small portion (10–18%) of proteins are broken down here, but this step is crucial for efficient digestion downstream. Small intestine The small intestine is the central hub of digestion and absorption . Final digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occurs here Most nutrients are absorbed into blood or lymph Digestive juices from the pancreas, liver and intestinal lining are added The small intestine is divided functionally into: duodenum  – intensive digestion and early absorption jejunum  – main site of nutrient absorption ileum  – absorption of vitamin B12 and bile acids Large intestine In the large intestine: water and electrolytes are absorbed gut microbiota ferment undigested carbohydrates short‑chain fatty acids and bacterial metabolites are produced Digestive enzymes – breaking food down into absorbable units Digestion relies on a finely tuned cascade of enzymes , each specific to certain substrates and locations in the digestive tract. Carbohydrate‑digesting enzymes Amylase  (saliva, pancreas) – breaks starch into maltose Maltase, sucrase, lactase  (intestinal brush border) – convert disaccharides into monosaccharides Carbohydrates are ultimately absorbed as glucose, fructose and galactose . Protein‑digesting enzymes Pepsin  (stomach) – initiates protein digestion Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase  (pancreas) – further cleave peptides Aminopeptidases  (intestinal brush border) – release free amino acids Proteins are absorbed mainly as free amino acids . Fat‑digesting enzymes Pancreatic lipase  (with colipase) Phospholipases  and cholesterol esterase Fats must first be emulsified by bile acids  to allow enzyme access. The final digestion products include fatty acids, monoglycerides and glycerol. Hormonal regulation of digestion Digestion is not controlled by enzymes alone. It is orchestrated by a sophisticated hormonal signalling network , ensuring that digestion proceeds at the right time, in the right place, and at the right speed. Key gastrointestinal hormones Gastrin Produced mainly in the stomach, gastrin: stimulates hydrochloric acid secretion increases pepsin release promotes gastric motility Its release is triggered by protein intake and stomach stretching. Cholecystokinin (CCK‑8) Secreted by the duodenum and small intestine in response to fats and amino acids, CCK: stimulates gallbladder contraction and bile release activates pancreatic enzyme secretion slows gastric emptying Secretin Released when acidic chyme enters the duodenum, secretin: stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas neutralises gastric acid inhibits gastric acid production Glucagon Produced in the pancreas, glucagon: raises blood glucose stimulates fat breakdown during fasting Adequate fasting intervals between meals are necessary for glucagon‑driven fat metabolism to occur. Other regulatory hormones and peptides Somatostatin  – inhibits acid, gastrin and insulin secretion Histamine  – stimulates gastric acid production Ghrelin  – regulates hunger and energy balance Leptin  – signals long-term energy availability and satiety, helps regulate appetite over time, and interacts with digestive and metabolic hormones Motilin  – stimulates intestinal motility between meals GLP‑1 and GIP  – enhance post‑meal insulin secretion and slow gastric emptying Together, these hormones ensure efficient digestion, nutrient absorption and metabolic balance. Digestion and absorption of macronutrients Carbohydrates Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and is completed in the small intestine. Absorption occurs as monosaccharides, which enter the bloodstream and influence blood glucose and insulin regulation. Non‑digestible carbohydrates (dietary fibre) reach the colon, where they support gut microbiota and are fermented into beneficial short‑chain fatty acids. Proteins Protein digestion starts in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Most amino acids are absorbed before reaching the colon. Efficient protein digestion depends on adequate stomach acid, pancreatic enzymes and healthy intestinal lining. Fats Fat digestion is the most complex process, requiring: bile acids for emulsification pancreatic enzymes for hydrolysis micelle and chylomicron formation for absorption and transport Disruptions in bile production or pancreatic function can severely impair fat absorption and lead to deficiencies in fat‑soluble vitamins. Micronutrient digestion and absorption Micronutrients — vitamins and minerals — rely on many of the same digestive processes as macronutrients. Their absorption is influenced by: stomach acidity bile acids intestinal health gut microbiota interactions with other nutrients and medications Because this topic is extensive, I have covered it in detail in a separate article and downloadable one‑page guides. 📘 You can explore these resources here: 👉 Resources page  (downloadable vitamin & mineral guides) When digestion doesn’t work optimally Digestive‑related nutrient deficiencies may arise due to: low stomach acid   (impaired protein digestion, reduced mineral absorption) bile or pancreatic enzyme insufficiency   (fat malabsorption, bloating, digestive discomfort) intestinal inflammation or resection   (reduced absorptive surface, increased nutrient losses) gut microbiota disruption   (e.g. antibiotics, altered fermentation, reduced short-chain fatty acid production) long-term medication use   (e.g. stomach acid suppressants (proton-pump inhibitors, metformin, NSAIDs) Supporting digestion through balanced nutrition, adequate meal timing, and digestive health awareness is therefore foundational to long‑term wellbeing. Final thoughts Digestion is not a passive process — it is a highly intelligent, responsive and adaptive system . Enzymes, hormones, organs and microbes work together seamlessly to transform food into life‑sustaining molecules. Understanding how this system works empowers us to make nutrition choices that truly support our bodies — not just on paper, but at the cellular level. If you’d like to continue exploring nutrient absorption in more detail, I warmly recommend revisiting the previous article and downloading the vitamin and mineral guides from the Resources page. If digestive symptoms, appetite changes, or ongoing nutrient concerns feel familiar, personalised nutrition support can make a meaningful difference. Digestion, absorption and appetite regulation are highly individual processes, influenced by lifestyle, health history and physiology. If you’d like guidance tailored specifically to your body and needs, you’re welcome to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Mini-series: The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite I am currently attending a month-long training programme titled “The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite” , which has provided me with deeper and more nuanced insights into how the human digestive system works. Because I find this knowledge both fascinating and highly practical, I wanted to share parts of it with you in a way that is easy to understand and applicable to everyday life. As the topic is extensive, I will be sharing it through a series of blog posts . This first article  focuses on the physiology of the human digestive system — what happens in the different parts of the digestive tract, how long digestion takes at each stage, and why supporting digestion through our daily habits is so important. An important takeaway is that every part of the digestive system can be either supported or overburdened by our eating behaviour, food choices and eating rhythm . The course is taught by Laine Parts , one of my favourite lecturers from my nutrition counselling studies at the Public Health Academy. She is a lecturer at the Tallinn Health Care College, a senior analytical chemist at the Estonian Environmental Research Centre, and a certified nutrition counsellor and nutrition therapist. With a strong background in chemistry and material sciences, she also teaches biochemistry, toxicology and nutrition-related subjects to future healthcare professionals. Her multidisciplinary, science-based background gives the training a very solid foundation. The deeper one delves into the functioning of the digestive system, the more respect and awe one develops for the human body. What our body does for us every single day — mostly unnoticed — is truly remarkable. What is digestion? Digestion is the process by which large food molecules are broken down by digestive enzymes into smaller building blocks (monomers) that can be absorbed through the intestinal lining into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The ultimate goal of digestion is nutrient absorption , allowing the body to use nutrients: to produce energy as building material for cells to support metabolic processes The more balanced, diverse and individualised  our diet is, the more efficient digestion becomes. Equally important is how  we eat — in a calm environment, without rushing or excessive stress. The digestive tract – 7 to 9 metres of coordinated work The total length of the human digestive tract is approximately 7–9 metres , consisting of: the mouth pharynx oesophagus stomach small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) large intestine Each section has a specific and irreplaceable role, and digestion functions optimally only when the entire system works in harmony. Digestion begins in the mouth The mouth is the most important mechanical stage of digestion . Food is broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva.The better food is chewed, the easier it is for digestive enzymes to access it later in the digestion process. About 1.2 litres of saliva  are produced daily. Saliva: helps reduce the entry of harmful bacteria with food initiates carbohydrate digestion The Oesophagus – an Often Overlooked Part of the Digestive Tract The oesophagus is a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. Its role is to transport swallowed food to the stomach through coordinated muscular contractions. Food moves through the oesophagus regardless of body position, but its function is strongly influenced by eating speed, stress levels, and body posture after meals. Food typically remains in the oesophagus for a few seconds up to around 10 seconds . At the lower end of the oesophagus is a sphincter muscle that prevents stomach acid from flowing back into the oesophagus. Eating too quickly, swallowing large bites, overeating, or lying down immediately after meals can increase the risk of heartburn, acid reflux and digestive discomfort. 👉 To support oesophageal function: eat slowly and chew food thoroughly (20-30 times) avoid very large bites remain upright for at least 20–30 minutes  after eating The stomach – a chemical and mechanical processing unit An adult stomach typically holds 1.5–3 litres , yet when empty it is small and folded. The stomach: mixes and grinds food through muscular contractions creates an acidic environment initiates protein digestion Food remains in the stomach for approximately 2–6 hours , depending on its composition. Protein and fat rich food remains in the stomach longer, carbohydrate and liquid based food shorter time. The liver and pancreas – hidden heroes of digestion The liver , the body’s largest gland, acts as a biochemical laboratory: producing bile acids for fat digestion processing and storing nutrients from food supporting detoxification 👉Learn more about the many functions of liver here and how can you support it with your food and lifestyle choices: https://www.katrinpeo.com/post/your-liver-why-and-how-to-take-care-of-it . The pancreas  produces: digestive enzymes (amylases, lipases, proteases) hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar and metabolism (these hormones work in opposition to maintain metabolic balance (homeostasis) . The small and large intestine – absorption and the microbiome Most nutrient digestion and absorption occur in the small intestine , where food moves through over 3–6 hours . Its surface area reaches up to 300 m² , making it highly efficient in absorbing nutrients. Food reaches the large intestine  approximately 6–8 hours after eating  and may remain there for 2–3 days . Here: water and minerals are absorbed billions of microorganisms process remaining material waste is formed Why does this matter? Overall, the complete digestive process — from the first bite to waste elimination — can take 24 to 72 hours . Digestion is therefore a highly energy-demanding process . Supporting digestion and digestive organs is essential for maintaining: energy levels immune function hormonal balance mood body weight For this reason, allowing the body rest from eating , especially at night, is crucial. During longer eating breaks, the body can redirect energy toward: cleansing processes recovery cellular regeneration 👉 You can read more about intermittent fasting, how to practise it and its health benefits here: https://et.katrinpeo.com/post/vahelduv-paastumine-kasu-tervisele-ja-kuidas-seda-teha Coming up next in this mini-series: how nutrients are digested and absorbed the role of gut microbiota in health mechanisms behind appetite regulation the connection between nutrition and biological rhythms If you would like to improve your eating habits and support your health, but are not sure where to start, feel free to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com . During online or in-person session(s), I provide feedback on your current nutrition and lifestyle habits, based on information you share with me before our meeting. Together, we identify your goals and focus areas, and you decide what you would like to work on and improve. I support you with evidence-based information, practical guidance and realistic steps, so you can move towards your health goals in a way that fits your daily life.

It's often said that food is fuel, but the journey from the plate to energy production is a complex one. While the primary purpose of consuming food is to fuel our bodies, there's a lot more at play beneath the surface. Commonly known as vitamins and minerals, these microscopic compounds are essential for our well-being, and without them, our existence would be at risk. Photo source: Unsplash The Significance of Vitamins and Minerals Discovered over a century ago, vitamins and minerals are crucial for normal bodily functions. With almost 30 identified micronutrients, each one plays a unique role, and a deficiency in any can have severe consequences. For instance, vitamin A deficiency can lead to blindness, while low iron levels can result in anemia and related complications. The Role of Nutrients in the Body In the modern era, access to nutrient-dense foods is in most countries abundant, and fortified products further supplement our diets. However, the absorption of these nutrients is equally critical. We are not only what we eat, but what we absorb . The digestive system, from the mouth to the large intestine, plays an important role in breaking down and absorbing essential components. The Digestive Journey The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is broken down into smaller bits. As it travels through the digestive system, various enzymes and microbiomes work together to further break down nutrients. The small intestine is a major player in the absorption process, where most vitamins and minerals are absorbed. Understanding the differences between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins can help optimise absorption. In this blog post you can read in detail about the different vitamins and minerals and which foods contain them . The Small Intestine's Absorption Process The small intestine consists of three sections – the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. This is where the majority of nutrient absorption occurs, and each micronutrient requires its own unique mechanism to cross the intestinal cell lining. Water-soluble vitamins rely on fluids for transport, while fat-soluble vitamins necessitate the presence of healthy fats for absorption. The Large Intestine's Hidden Functions While historically seen as primarily responsible for removing excess water and salts, the large intestine is now recognised for its diverse functions, especially its role in hosting the gut microbiome . Gut bacteria, predominantly colonising the colon, contribute to the breakdown of leftover food remnants, transforming them into additional sources of essential nutrients. The Microbial Factor Although not mandatory for nutrient absorption, gut bacteria play supporting roles that enhance the process. A healthy gut ecosystem contributes to the integrity of the intestinal lining and can even increase the levels of essential nutrients. For instance, certain gut bacteria produce a significant portion of our daily vitamin K requirement. Reasons for Micronutrient Deficiencies There can be several reasons why you may have nutritional deficiencies. It could simply be that your diet is not diverse enough or the diet is high in sugar and processed foods. It could also be if you are under a lot of stress, have a high toxic load, have poor blood sugar balance , low stomach acid or have a leaky gut , which all can contribute to nutritional deficiencies in your body. In the intricate dance of digestion and nutrient absorption, understanding your body's unique needs is paramount. Factors like lifestyle, diet, and the health of your various microbiomes all contribute to the efficiency of this essential process. Recognising the gaps in your diet and adopting strategies to improve nutrient absorption is the first step toward achieving optimal health. If you want to improve your diet and are not sure where to start, then don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

The healthcare landscape offers various approaches to patient care, with functional medicine and conventional medicine being two prominent models. Each has its unique methodologies, strengths, and considerations. Understanding these can aid individuals in making informed decisions about their health.​ Conventional Medicine Conventional medicine, often termed Western or allopathic medicine, is the predominant healthcare system in many parts of the world. It focuses on diagnosing and treating diseases primarily through pharmaceuticals, surgeries, and other interventions. This approach is particularly effective in acute and emergency situations, such as infections, trauma, or life-threatening conditions, where immediate intervention is crucial. Specialisation is a hallmark, with practitioners concentrating on specific organ systems or diseases, allowing for targeted expertise. However, this model may sometimes emphasise symptom management over addressing underlying causes, potentially leading to prolonged medication use without resolving root issues. Additionally, time constraints in patient consultations can limit comprehensive lifestyle or preventive discussions. Functional Medicine Functional medicine adopts a holistic, patient-centred approach, aiming to identify and address the root causes of diseases. It considers the intricate interactions among genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors influencing health. Practitioners often spend extended time with patients, delving into histories and personal circumstances to tailor individualised treatment plans. These plans may encompass dietary modifications, lifestyle changes, stress management, and, when appropriate, conventional treatments. This approach is particularly beneficial for chronic conditions where multifaceted factors contribute to health issues. However, functional medicine may require significant patient commitment, as lifestyle and dietary changes can be time-consuming to implement and require focus and dedication. Additionally, some treatments may not be covered by insurance, leading to out-of-pocket expenses. ​ You can find a functional medicine practitioner near you here . Integrative Medicine Recognising the strengths of both models, an integrative medicine approach combines conventional and functional medicine practices. This synergy aims to provide comprehensive care, utilising the immediate efficacy of conventional treatments alongside the preventive and personalised strategies of functional medicine. For instance, a patient might use medication to manage acute symptoms while simultaneously adopting lifestyle changes to address underlying causes. Such collaboration can enhance patient outcomes by leveraging the benefits of both approaches. ​ Conclusion Both functional and conventional medicine offer valuable perspectives in healthcare. Conventional medicine excels in acute care and specialised interventions, while functional medicine provides a comprehensive approach to chronic disease management and prevention. By understanding and integrating these models, individuals can pursue a balanced and personalised healthcare strategy that addresses both immediate needs and long-term wellness.

Many of us start a new year with the same intention: to feel better in our bodies . And very often, that intention turns into a plan to “eat better.” But eating better in 2026 doesn’t need another strict diet, calorie counting app, or short-term detox. Science clearly shows that small, consistent changes to food quality, variety, and timing can create powerful, long-lasting improvements in health . Research also shows something very encouraging: changing your diet at any point in life can add healthy years , and you don’t need months to feel the benefits. You can feel different within hours, see biological improvements within weeks, and create real protection for your long-term health. Here are the key principles that matter most – grounded in the latest research and years of practical experience. 1. Focus on Food Quality, Not Calories Many people start the year by cutting calories in pursuit of rapid weight loss. While this may work short-term, it rarely works long-term. Most people regain the weight – often more – because the body adapts by increasing hunger and slowing metabolism. What consistently works better is focusing on food quality : Fibre-rich foods Diverse plants Healthy fats High-quality protein You can eat the same number of calories  from very different foods and get completely different health outcomes. A nutrient-dense meal supports stable blood sugar, fullness, gut health, and energy – without counting a single calorie. 👉 If you want to read more on eating for satiety, see: How to Eat So You Feel Satisfied 2. Balance Every Meal (Especially Breakfast) You can feel the effects of food within hours . A highly refined breakfast – white toast, pastries, sweet cereals, fruit juices – often leads to blood sugar dips, low energy, brain fog, and hunger shortly after eating. A balanced breakfast makes a dramatic difference: Protein (e.g. unflavoured Greek yoghurt, kefir, eggs) Fibre (berries, seeds, whole grains) Healthy fats (nuts, seeds) This kind of meal supports stable blood sugar, better focus, and sustained energy – helping you avoid the energy rollercoaster for the rest of the day. 👉 For more examples of a balanced breakfast, see: How changing what you eat for breakfast can improve your health . 3. Use the Plate Rule as a Simple Guide A very practical tool for everyday meals is the plate rule : ½ plate : colourful vegetables and fruits ¼ plate : protein (beans, lentils, tofu, fish, eggs, occasionally meat) ¼ plate : whole grains (quinoa, buckwheat, wholegrain rice, millet) or starchy vegetables (potatoes, sweet potatoes) This automatically increases fibre, micronutrients, and meal balance – without needing perfection. 👉 You can find examples of foods you can add to your plate here: Tips for Better Holiday Nutrition: How to Enjoy the Season Without Sacrificing Your Health 4. Aim for 30 Different Plants Per Week One of the most important discoveries in nutrition over the past decade is the role of gut microbiome diversity . Plant foods include: Vegetables and fruits Whole grains Legumes Nuts and seeds Herbs and spices It’s not about eating large amounts of one plant food– it’s about variety . Different gut microbes thrive on different fibres and polyphenols. The more diverse your plant food intake, the more diverse and resilient your gut microbiome becomes – supporting immunity, metabolism, mental health, and inflammation control. Think of it as feeding an ecosystem: more variety = more resilience . 👉 Read more about gut supporting foods: Are You Getting Enough Fibre From Your Food? Polyphenols: What Are They and Their Health Benefits Prebiotics : What Are They and How Can You Get Them From Food? 5. Reduce High-Risk Processed Foods Not all processed foods are unhealthy – freezing, fermenting, and cooking are also forms of processing. The problem lies with high-risk ultra-processed foods . These foods: Are easy to eat quickly Disrupt fullness signals Contain emulsifiers, flavourings, artificial sweeteners and additives Often combine sugar, fat, and refined starch in unnatural ways Studies consistently show that ultra-processed foods are linked to increased risk of: Cardiovascular disease Metabolic disorders Mental health issues Overeating (by ~25%) Simple swaps that make a big difference: Fruit yoghurt → plain unflavoured yoghurt + fruit or berries Low-fat products → natural full-fat versions White bread → wholegrain and seeded breads with a short ingredient list and high fibre Milk chocolate → dark chocolate (70% and higher cacao and with few ingredients, ideally not more than 3) Most breakfast cereals → oats, eggs, yoghurt, kefir, or leftovers from dinner Focus first on reviewing and upgrading the quality (nutrition value) of the foods you eat every day  – small changes here compound over time. 👉 Read more about ultra-processed foods here: Ultra-Processed Foods: How Your Grocery Cart May Impact Your Health 6. Eat the Rainbow (and Don’t Fear Bitterness) Bright colours in plant foods come from polyphenols  – natural defence compounds that act as fuel for your gut microbes. Purple, red, orange, and dark green vegetables contain far more polyphenols than pale or beige foods Bitterness (olive oil, broccoli, dark chocolate, coffee) often signals high polyphenol content in the food Choose: Brightly coloured vegetables Dark leafy greens Berries Herbs and spices Colour and bitterness are powerful clues to nutritional value. 7. Choose Protein for Quality, Not Hype Protein labels are everywhere, and many people worry they’re not getting enough. In reality, most people can meet their needs with a balanced diet. What matters is protein quality and source : Diverse plant proteins (legumes, grains, nuts, seeds) Fermented dairy (kefir, Greek yoghurt) Eggs Fish, especially oily fish (salmon, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, herring) Lean meat Processed red meat (sausages, hams, viennas etc) is associated with higher risk of chronic disease. Plant-based protein diversity provides all essential amino acids – plus fibre, healthy fats, and polyphenols. 👉 Read more about protein, how much we need it from here: The Role of Protein in Our Bodies: Why Balance Is Key 8. Include Fermented Foods Daily Fermented foods are foods transformed by microbes into something more beneficial. Examples: Kefir and yoghurt Sauerkraut and kimchi Kombucha, water kefir, kvass Miso, tempeh Research shows fermented foods can reduce inflammation quickly  and support immune and gut health. Variety matters – different ferments contain different microbes. Aim for 2–3 different fermented foods per day , choosing products that are live and minimally processed. 👉 Read more about fermented foods here: Fermented foods: Natural Way to Support Gut Health 9. Try a Consistent Eating Window Time-restricted eating focuses on when  you eat, not just what you eat. A practical goal: Eating window: 10–12 hours (where you consume your meals for example between 7am and 7pm) Overnight fast: 12–14 hours An earlier eating window (e.g. 8:00–18:00) appears more beneficial than eating late into the evening. Many people naturally reduce calorie intake and improve blood sugar, cholesterol, and energy without dieting. It doesn’t need to be perfect – 5 days of time-restricted eating a week is enough  to see benefits. 👉 Read more about intermittent fasting here: Intermittent fasting - the health benefits and how to go about it 10. Eat Mindfully and Break Automatic Habits Much of how we eat is habitual. Snacking, overeating, and mindless eating often happen without hunger. Mindful eating means: Pausing before you eat (smell the food, admire how it looks on the plate, be grateful for the meal, take three deep belly breaths to activate the parasympathetic nervous system that supports the digestion of the food) Eating without distraction when possible and slowing down when eating (putting the utensils down between the bites and chewing the food well) Noticing how food affects your energy, mood, and digestion Mindfulness is the antidote to highly processed foods designed to be eaten quickly and unconsciously. Small awareness shifts can lead to powerful habit changes. 👉 You can get more tips from these articles: What is your relationship with food? Digestive health- you are not only what you eat but what you digest and absorb Final Thought: Small Actions Add Up Diet is one of the most powerful tools we have for improving health. You don’t need perfection – you need consistency . Within: Hours : energy and focus can improve Weeks : cholesterol, glucose, blood pressure can change Months : long-term disease risk begins to shift Small, daily actions truly compound. 👉 For more guidance, explore my previous guidelines: Building a Healthier You in 2025 Transforming Your Health: A Month-by-Month Guide to Better Eating in 2024 If you want to improve your diet to improve your health and you don't know where to start, have tried multiple diets, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling, so you can get to a healthy balanced nutrition that works with your lifestyle. Contact me here: info@katrinpeo.com . Sources: ZOE: 8 Ways to Eat Better in 2026 Gut micro-organisms associated with health, nutrition and dietary interventions – Nature (2025) Gut microbiome signatures of vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets – Nature (2024)

Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when consumed in adequate amounts, can provide health benefits, especially for your digestive and immune systems. While probiotic supplements are widely available , it's important to understand that not all probiotics are the same . Different strains serve different functions, and taking the wrong type or poor-quality product may not offer any benefit—or could even worsen certain symptoms. That’s why it’s best to work with a qualified health professional , such as a gastroenterologist, a registered dietitian, or a nutritional therapist, to assess whether you need probiotic supplementation, and if so, which strains are appropriate for your specific health needs. If you want to learn in more detail about probiotics, visit World Gastroenterology website . Fortunately, many people can support their gut microbiome effectively through natural food sources of probiotics . These foods contain beneficial bacteria that can help restore and maintain a balanced gut flora as part of a healthy lifestyle. In this article, I’ll focus exclusively on how to get probiotics from foods—delicious, functional, and evidence-backed options that are easy to include in your daily meals. Understanding Probiotics and the Gut Microbiome The human gastrointestinal tract houses trillions of microorganisms collectively known as the gut microbiome . A balanced microbiome plays a crucial role in digestion, nutrient absorption, immune function, and even mental health. Probiotics help maintain this balance by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and inhibiting harmful pathogens. Every person has her or his own distinctive blend of specific probiotic strains in the gut- no microbiome is exactly the same and microbiome is influenced daily by our dietary choices. Health Benefits of Probiotics from Foods Consuming probiotic-rich foods has been associated with several health benefits: Digestive Health : Probiotics can alleviate symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), reduce bloating, and improve regularity. Immune Support : A significant portion of the immune system resides in the gut. Probiotics can enhance immune responses and reduce the risk of infections.  Mental Well-being : Emerging research suggests a link between gut health and mental health, indicating that probiotics may influence mood and cognitive function.  Nutrient Synthesis : Certain probiotics can synthesise essential nutrients, such as vitamin K and some B vitamins.  Conjugation of bile acids:  Probiotics support cholesterol metabolism. Increase in butyrate production:  Probiotics promote an increase in butyrate production in the body, which supports an increase in anti-inflammatory interleukins, therefore suppressing inflammation. Support for Women's Health:  Probiotics can aid in maintaining a healthy balance of vaginal microflora, reducing the risk of infections such as yeast infections and bacterial vaginosis. Top Probiotic-Rich Foods Historically, we had plenty of probiotics in our diets as we ate fresh foods from good soil and we fermented foods to keep them from spoiling. In modern world, because of our agricultural practices, refrigeration, most of our foods contain little to no probiotics as well as our diets are low in fibre, which is food for the bacteria in our guts. Therefore it's recommended to consume specific foods and drinks that are fermented. The process of microbial fermentation turns the ordinary foods into more nutritionally and functionally rich products, resulting in probiotics, prebiotics, and bioactive components. These functional ingredients act together in our gastrointestinal tract to modify the gut microbiota, activate the immune system, promote the absorption of nutrients and remove toxins. Below is a list of some fermented foods to add to your daily diet. Incorporating 2-3 servings can boost your intake of natural probiotics: 1. Yoghurt Made by fermenting milk with beneficial bacteria, yogurt is a well-known probiotic food. Look for labels stating "live and active cultures" to ensure probiotic content. Opt for non-flavoured yoghurts and flavour them yourself with berries if desired to avoid unnecessary added sugars, thickeners, emulsifiers, flavourings and colourings 2. Kefir Very similar to yoghurt, this fermented probiotic drink is a unique combination of milk and fermented kefir grains. 'Kefir' originates from Turkey and Russia and means 'feel good'- it has been consumed thousands of years. It has slightly acidic flavour and it contains anywhere from 10 to 34 different strains of probiotics. It's fermented with yeast and bacteria and is higher in probiotics and lower in lactose than yoghurt. 3. Sauerkraut Sauerkraut  is made from cabbage. Though it's not diverse in probiotics, it's high in organic acid, which supports the growth of good bacteria in the gut. It's also high in vitamin C, natural lactic acid bacteria and digestive enzymes. Opt for unpasteurised versions when purchasing from the grocery store to retain live cultures. 4. Kimchi It's a Korean version of sauerkraut and created mixing a main vegetable such as cabbage with other foods like radishes, carrots, garlic, ginger, onion and adding some spices, sea salt and fish sauce. It's a flavour-filled probiotic-rich food to add next to your savoury meals. 5. Coconut water Kefir Coconut water kefir  made from young coconuts by fermenting the juice with kefir grains. It is typically not as high with probiotics as dairy kefir, but has some strains beneficial for your health. You can make a refreshing drink by adding some water, lime juice and stevia to coconut kefir. 6. Water Kefir Water kefir  is made by adding kefir grains to sugar water, which as a result of fermentation turns into a fizzy drink filled with probiotics. As it's dairy-free, it's a great option for vegetarians and vegans. You can also add spices, herbs and fruit to the drink to customise it for your liking. 7. Low-Sugar Kombucha Kombucha  is a fermented drink, made from black tea, raw cane sugar and its most important ingredient, SCOBY- a symbiotic colony of yeast and bacteria. Kombucha's  origins are from Japan and it has been consumed for over 2,000 years. Main health benefits include digestive support, liver detoxification and increased energy. 8. Kvass A fermented drink from Eastern Europe, where it is made of either barley or rye or from from beets (you can find beet kvass recipe here ). Kvass is known of its blood and liver cleansing properties. 9. Miso A Japanese seasoning produced by fermenting soybeans with salt and koji, miso is commonly used in soups and sauces, providing beneficial bacteria. 10. Tempeh Originating from Indonesia, tempeh is a fermented soybean product that's a rich source of probiotics and plant-based protein. 11. Natto It's a dish from Japan containing fermented soybeans and contains an important probiotic Bacillus subtilis, which improves your immune system, supports cardiovascular health and also helps to digest vitamin K2. In addition it's loaded with protein and contains anti-inflammatory enzyme nattokinase. Other fermented milk products The following list of fermented milk products are also good to consume: sour milk, buttermilk, cottage cheese, Skyr, sour cream, quark (curd cheese), Ayran, Villi as well as cheeses like Parmigiano Reggiano, Grana Padano, Pecorino, Gruyere, Manchego, Cheddar, Edam, Gouda, Emmental, Mozzarella, Camembert, Feta, Chevre, cream cheese. Dosa - Fermented rice and lentil crepe Tamari - fermented Japanese soy sauce made from soybeans Soy sauce - fermented sauce from soybeans that also often contains wheat (there are gluten-free versions as well where wheat is replaced with rice) Douchi - fermented and salted black soybeans Here is a periodic table of many different fermented foods and drinks, created by Michael Gänzle, PhD, professor and Canada Research Chair in Food Microbiology and Probiotics at the University of Alberta. Gänzle is regarded as an expert in fermented foods and lactic acid bacteria. Source: The Fermentation Association Tips for Incorporating Probiotic Foods Start Slowly : Introduce fermented foods gradually to allow your digestive system to adjust. Start with 1 tsp a day and increase slowly day by day if you have not consumed probiotic foods at all. Diversify Your Intake : Consume a variety of probiotic foods to benefit from different strains of beneficial bacteria. Combine with Prebiotics : Prebiotics are non-digestible fibres that feed probiotics. Foods like garlic, onions, bananas, and whole grains can enhance probiotic efficacy.  Check Labels : Ensure products contain live cultures and are not pasteurised post-fermentation, which can kill beneficial bacteria. Conclusion Incorporating probiotic-rich foods into your daily diet is a natural and effective way to support gut health and overall well-being. By choosing a diverse range of fermented foods, you can enhance your microbiome without the need for supplements. If you are looking for a professional's help to guide you towards healthier nutrition, don't hesitate to reach out to me for nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

The holidays are meant to be joyful — full of family, traditions, delicious food, and the chance to unwind. But for many of us, festive eating also means rich meals, larger portions, more alcohol, and less fibre than usual. By January, it’s common to feel sluggish, bloated, low in energy, or like you’ve taken a step backward in your health goals. The good news? You can absolutely enjoy the season without guilt or restriction — and without harming your gut, metabolism, or long-term health. With a few smart strategies, you can feel better in January, not worse. This article explores: What happens to your body and gut during a month of indulgence Why some people experience real health risks during the holidays How commercial foods hijack festive eating habits Gut-friendly holiday food swaps Evidence-based ways to “reset” without detox teas Practical tips for eating, drinking, moving, and sleeping well How to enjoy the holidays mindfully while still honouring your traditions Why Holiday Eating Feels So Hard on the Body For most people, 2–3 indulgent days around Christmas won’t cause long-term harm. But a month of ultra-processed foods, sugary treats, fatty meats, and frequent alcohol can take a noticeable toll on digestion, energy levels, mood, immunity, and metabolic health. 1. Your gut microbiome shifts — fast Your gut microbes respond to what you eat daily. Dr Federica Amati , a Medical Scientist and Registered Public Health Nutritionist , explains: The top layer of microbes changes quickly — within hours or days. The middle layer can become more inflammatory after continuous exposure to added sugar, alcohol, and processed fats. When indulgence lasts weeks, even the more stable foundation layer may be affected, potentially harming the gut lining or triggering IBS-like symptoms. 2. Overeating stresses your cardiovascular and metabolic systems This is especially true if you already live with: Type 2 diabetes Obesity High blood pressure Cardiovascular disease High cholesterol 3. Alcohol impacts sleep, immunity, and gut health Alcohol is: Pro-inflammatory Disruptive to gut microbes Hard on the liver A major sleep disruptor Even moderate festive drinking affects mood, energy, cravings, and immunity. Read more about the effects of alcohol on health here . 4. Commercial holiday foods are designed to overfeed us Most ultra-processed holiday snacks are: High in sugar, salt, and additives Calorie-dense per bite Engineered for overconsumption Here are just a few examples of commercial holiday foods: commercial Christmas cookies, packaged mince pies, Christmas cakes and puddings, holiday-themed marshmallow treats, candy canes, cheese balls and cheese puffs, holiday snack mixes, frozen party appetisers, whipped topping sprays, holiday cream liqueurs etc. A 2024 systematic review found that ultra-processed foods significantly increase overall caloric intake and appetite compared to minimally processed foods ( Rodríguez-Pérez et al., 2024 ). Read more about the ultra-processed foods here . How to Enjoy the Season Without Overdoing It 1. Start by building your plate with fibre (this solves half the problem) If you feed your gut microbes, the rest follows. Fill ½–¾ of your plate with: Roasted vegetables Red cabbage or sauerkraut Legume-based dishes Leafy greens Root vegetables Whole grains (brown rice, buckwheat, barley) Then add: Turkey, fish, chicken, small amount of pork or beef or plant protein sources like beans, lentils, tofu A small portion of richer foods you love You can view different types of plates, how it's recommended to plate the food for an omnivore, vegetarian, if you eat pasta and how the plate of food should look like during festive season at Toitumine.ee . 2. Use gut-friendly festive food swaps Keep the tradition — change the ingredients. Examples: Cheese-heavy boards → fibre-rich boards (nuts, seeds, olives, fresh + dried fruit, veggie sticks, hummus) Crackers → wholegrain or seed crackers (rye crisp-bread, seed crackers) Creamy dips → fermented or legume-based dips (Greek yoghurt dips, kefir-based dips, white bean dip, roasted beet hummus, pumpkin hummus) Mashed potatoes with lots of butter → root vegetable mash (use carrots, parsnips, pumpkin, celeriac, or combine with potatoes. Add olive oil instead of heavy cream.) Roasted potatoes → roasted mixed vegetables (Brussels sprouts, carrots, beetroot, parsnip, cauliflower, red cabbage- top with olive oil and herbs) Mayonnaise-based salads (Waldorf, potato salad) → yoghurt or kefir-based dressings Store-bought dressings → simple olive oil + citrus + garlic or vinegar-free ferments brine (brine from sauerkraut or pickles adds probiotics + flavour) Commercial gravy → homemade gravy Salt-heavy seasoning → fresh herbs, citrus, garlic, leeks, spring onions (supports gut diversity through polyphenols) Processed sausages → quality home prepared meat (turkey, pork, chicken) or plant-based options (lentils, beans, lasagne with vegetables and lentils) Store-bought pies and cakes → homemade pies and cakes Whipping cream → thick Greek yogurt Highly processed chocolates → dark chocolate (70%+ cacao) or cacao nibs Ferments are perfect for Christmas: Sauerkraut Fermented red cabbage Kimchi Pickles (not with vinegar) Miso Kefir and water kefir Regular intake of fermented foods improves microbial diversity and lowers inflammation markers ( Keller et al., 2023 ). 3. Set gentle guardrails around alcohol Intention matters more than perfection. Try: ✔ One glass of wine with dinner (and not more often than 4 days a week during the festive weeks) ✔ A water glass next to your wine glass ✔ Alcohol-free days (aim for 3 alcohol free days a week) ✔ Water kefir with citrus ✔ Herbal teas ✔ Kombucha with pomegranate juice and fresh rosemary 4. Support your digestion and metabolism with movement Just 10–20 minutes of walking after meals can: Reduce blood-sugar spikes Support digestion Improve circulation Boost energy and mood 5. Protect your sleep like your wellbeing depends on it — because it does Holiday sleep loss disrupts: Mood Appetite control Blood sugar Cravings Immunity 6. Ventilation: the underrated holiday health habit Cold or not — open windows during gatherings. Fresh air reduces viral load indoors. Do You Need a Detox After the Holidays? Short answer: No. Your body detoxes naturally via your liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, and gut. Many detox teas and pills: Contain laxatives Cause dehydration Are unregulated supplements Instead, follow evidence-based reset habits: 12–14 hour overnight fast, where you don't eat. Drinking water or herbal tea is ok. Return to plant-forward eating (30 plants/week- the more variety the better) Add omega-3 rich foods (fatty fish- salmon, trout, herring, sardines and plant sources like flax seeds, chia seeds, hemp seeds, walnuts) Choose water as your main drink Reintroduce fermented foods (3+ servings/day) Mindset Matters: Enjoy the Season Without Shame or Guilt Healthy holiday eating isn’t about restriction — it’s about intention. Enjoy treats you truly love. Skip the commercial extras. Honour traditions. Focus on people, not plates Slow down and taste your food Prioritise nourishment, hydration, rest, and movement This season can help you feel better — not worse — and still be full of flavour, joy, and meaning. If you are looking to get personalised nutrition counselling, don't hesitate to reach out to me at info@katrinpeo.com . Read about the services I provide here .

Two weeks ago, I attended a day seminar on the bariatric surgery patient journey — about surgeries, nutrition, supplements, and movement. The seminar was aimed at family doctors, nutrition therapists and nutrition counsellors. Obesity is a chronic, progressive disease—not a personal failure. And like all chronic illnesses, it deserves skilled support, early intervention, and compassion. The Health Risks Linked to Obesity Obesity affects every organ system  in the body. It increases the risk of: Prediabetes and type 2 diabetes Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Sleep apnoea Osteoarthritis Cardiovascular disease Stroke Infertility Asthma Certain cancers (breast, colon, liver, pancreatic, etc.) Depression Early mortality These risks make it clear why some individuals eventually consider medical or surgical intervention. According to the World Health Organization (2022–2024) : 1 in 8 people worldwide live with obesity Adult obesity has more than doubled  since 1990 Adolescent obesity has quadrupled 2.5 billion adults are overweight; 890 million live with obesity 35 million children under 5 are overweight Over 390 million children aged 5–19 are overweight or obese In Estonia: 33%  of adults aged 16–64 are overweight 19%  live with obesity Since 2020, more than 28,000 people  have been diagnosed with type 2 diabetes All this information is deeply concerning. For individuals with severe obesity, bariatric surgery can be a highly effective tool  that improves metabolic health, supports weight loss, reduces medication needs, and enhances quality of life. But surgery is not  a cure. It is a medical tool  that requires lifelong cooperation between the patient, healthcare team, and daily lifestyle choices. This article explains what is bariatric surgery, when it is recommended, why nutrition, yearly medical follow-up, appropriate supplementation, psychological support, and lifestyle habits  are essential for long-term success after bariatric surgery. When Is Bariatric Surgery Recommended? Bariatric surgery is generally indicated when: BMI ≥ 40 , or BMI ≥ 35 with obesity-related co-morbidities  (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnoea) You can calculate your BMI here . In parallel it's also recommended to measure your waist and your hip. The recommended healthy waist circumference is less than 88 cm for women and less than 102 cm for men. The two most common bariatric surgeries are: 1. Gastric Bypass A small stomach pouch (20–30 ml) is created and connected directly to the small intestine, bypassing the rest of the stomach and duodenum. This reduces food intake and decreases nutrient absorption. 2. Gastric Sleeve Around 85% of the stomach is permanently removed, leaving a narrow “banana-shaped” tube (100–150 ml). This reduces stomach volume and lowers hunger by reducing ghrelin production. Why Bariatric Surgery Changes Everything in the Body Bariatric procedures such as sleeve gastrectomy, gastric bypass, and mini-bypass work by reducing stomach size or rerouting food past parts of the stomach and small intestine . This leads to: reduced stomach acid production altered digestive enzyme activity reduced absorption of several vitamins and minerals changes in hunger and satiety hormones faster alcohol absorption higher sensitivity to certain medications Because the digestive system is permanently changed, the body cannot process food the same way it used to. This is why patients need special dietary guidelines, lifelong supplementation, and regular biochemical monitoring . Micronutrient Deficiencies: A Real and Common Risk People living with obesity already have a higher risk of micronutrient deficiencies. After bariatric surgery, the risk becomes even higher due to reduced absorption: Most common deficiencies after surgery Iron Vitamin D Vitamin B12 Folate Calcium Fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, K) Protein  (if daily intake is insufficient) Many of these deficiencies can lead to fatigue, hair loss, bone problems, anemia, weak immunity, and neurological symptoms. This is why checking blood levels of the above micronutrients every year  (or more often if problems arise) is critical for long-term health. Why Pharmacy Multivitamins Are NOT Enough After bariatric surgery, the body requires higher, therapeutic amounts  of certain vitamins and minerals—something regular pharmacy multivitamins do not provide. For example: Iron needs increase dramatically. Vitamin B12 absorption drops sharply and may require high-dose tablets or injections. Calcium citrate (not calcium carbonate) is needed due to low stomach acid. Vitamin D must often be taken all year round. Bariatric-formulated supplements  are specifically designed for hese needs. They ensure correct forms, doses, and combinations that support proper absorption and prevent deficiencies. The Problem: Many Patients Stop Follow-Up Too Early It was stated at the bariatric seminar that 30–40% of patients stop attending follow-up appointments within two years  after surgery. This is concerning because: deficiencies often appear years  after surgery weight regain can happen gradually medication needs may change mental well-being requires long-term support physical symptoms may not be noticeable until complications arise Not attending follow-up increases the risk of long-term health issues that could otherwise be prevented. Essential Eating and Drinking Guidelines Because the stomach is smaller and the digestive process is altered, the following guidelines are crucial: 1. Eat regularly and avoid long gaps Irregular eating with long gaps leads to: low energy unstable blood sugar hypoglycaemia overeating later in the day poor protein intake slower metabolism Small frequent meals work best. 2. Prioritise protein intake Protein must be prioritised before surgery and lifelong after . The recommended intake of protein is 1.2-1.5g per kg of body weight. This supports: muscle mass metabolic rate wound healing satiety weight maintenance 3. Hydration matters Because the stomach is smaller, sipping water is often difficult. Techniques like small, frequent sips, room-temperature water, herbal teas can help maintain hydration. Don't drink 30 minutes before meals Don't drink during meals Don't drink 30–45 minutes after meals Sip slowly throughout the day Avoid carbonated drinks (including carbonated water). Gas can expand in the stomach and cause discomfort or stretch the pouch. 4. Avoid carbonated drinks Gas can expand in the stomach and cause discomfort or stretch the pouch. 5. Be careful with alcohol After bariatric surgery: alcohol reaches the bloodstream faster blood alcohol levels rise higher addiction risk increases (alcoholism is a known complication) Alcohol should be consumed rarely or avoided altogether. Many bariatric clinics recommend avoiding alcohol for 6–12 months , sometimes longer. Medication Adjustments: What You Need to Know Some medications are absorbed differently after surgery. Avoid NSAIDs  such as: ibuprofen diclofenac These irritate the stomach lining and increase the risk of ulcers.Safer alternatives should be discussed with a doctor. Many patients also need to adjust blood pressure medications, diabetes medications, and sometimes antidepressants. It is important to review all medications with a doctor after surgery—and then regularly over time, as the body changes. Pregnancy After Bariatric Surgery Women should not take bariatric-specific supplements during pregnancy. Instead, they should switch to pregnancy-specific supplements  under medical guidance. Pregnancy is safest 12–24 months after surgery , depending on the individual’s nutrition status and weight stability. Weight Regain: Why It Happens About 20–30% of patients  experience weight regain or inadequate weight loss in the long term. The main reasons include: Stopping follow-up visits Not taking supplements Irregular eating Emotional eating Lack of physical activity Alcohol use Returning to old habits Surgery is a powerful tool — but it must be combined with: consistent healthy nutrition regular physical movement psychological support when needed yearly medical monitoring Can Bariatric Surgery Be Reversed? Gastric bypass and mini-bypass  may be reversible in certain cases (rare, and only when medically necessary). Sleeve gastrectomy is not reversible , because most of the stomach is permanently removed. This is why it is essential to seek thorough consultation from the doctors  before deciding on surgery. Professional Support Matters Successful long-term outcomes are much more likely when individuals work closely with: bariatric surgeons nutrition therapists psychologists or behavioural therapists general practitioners physiotherapists or personal trainers Weight loss is deeply physiological, emotional, and behavioural. No one should go through it alone. Final Message Bariatric surgery is not a quick fix or a short-term solution. It is a life-changing medical intervention  that requires commitment, knowledge, and ongoing support. To protect your health and maintain the benefits of surgery: Follow the nutrition and hydration guidelines provided to you Take the correct supplements in the correct amounts Have your blood checked every year Adjust your medications with your doctor Seek support for emotional or behavioural challenges Stay physically active Attend all follow-up appointments With the right approach, bariatric surgery can help you achieve long-term health, improved quality of life, and a better relationship with your body. If you’ve tried dieting for years, feel stuck, or don’t know where to start to get to a healthier weight with nutrition and lifestyle changes, do reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling and health coaching at info@katrinpeo.com .

Carbohydrates have been at the center of nutritional discussions for decades, often misunderstood and unfairly blamed for weight gain and health issues. But not all carbs are created equal. In this article, I'll break down what carbohydrates are, the difference between simple and complex carbs, and how to make smarter choices when selecting carbohydrate-rich foods. What Are Carbohydrates? Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients (alongside proteins and fats ) that provide the body with energy. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is the main fuel for our body cells. Carbohydrates are divided into two groups based on their nutritional value: those that are digested and absorbed, supplying the body's cells with glucose, and those that are not digested and pass into the large intestine, where they are used as a food source by the microbiota . Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body - mainly in the liver and muscles, which is converted into glucose when needed for energy production. Carbohydrates and their sources Mono- and disaccharides glucose (grape sugar) - foods that naturally contain glucose include honey, agave, molasses, fruits, dried fruit, sweet corn. fructose (fruit sugar) - naturally found in fruits, dried fruits, some vegetables (beets, carrots, sweet potatoes, onions, bell peppers), agave, honey), but also added to processed foods in the form of high-fructose corn syrup. galactose - primarily in dairy, after being broken down by enzyme lactase during digestion. sucrose (table sugar) - naturally in sugar cane, sugar beet, honey, in sweet fruits and vegetables. In everyday life, we primarily know sucrose as table sugar, which is added to various foods during processing. lactose (milk sugar) -found in milk and dairy products maltose (malt sugar)- found in certain plant-based foods, especially those that undergo starch breakdown. In barley (especially malted barley), oats, wheat, rye, corns, sweet potato, potato, pumpkin, butternut squash. Oligosaccharides raffinose - found in legumes (beans, lentils) maltodextrin - obtained from starch, used as a food supplement. Polysaccharids starches - found in rice, wheat, corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes, legumes, bananas fibre - soluble fibre which absorbs water and slows digestion (oats, flaxseeds, legumes, chia seeds, carrots, apples); insoluble fibre which ads bulk, promotes bowel movements (vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds). Learn more about the importance of fibre here . Function of carbohydrates in the body The body's main source of energy In the composition of cells and tissues In the composition of hormones Protective function in the composition of antibodies Determine blood type The role of a reserve substance in the body - storing glucose in the liver and muscles as glycogen, which the body can easily use as energy Fibre - food for intestinal bacteria and for keeping the digestive system in order Healthy Carbohydrates vs. Refined (unhealthy) Carbohydrates Not all carbohydrates are equal in terms of health benefits. Healthy Carbohydrates:  These are whole, minimally processed sources that contain fibre, vitamins, and minerals. Examples include: Vegetables, fruits and berries Whole grains (quinoa, steel cut or large rolled oats, buckwheat, brown rice) Legumes (lentils, beans, chickpeas) Nuts and seeds Dairy Interestingly, certain preparation methods can increase the resistant starch content  in some carbohydrate-rich foods, making them healthier. For example, freezing bread increases its resistant starch  content, while cooking and then cooling potatoes can enhance their resistant starch , making them a better choice for gut health and blood sugar control than eating the potato right after it has been boiled, baked or mashed. Refined Carbohydrates:  These have been stripped of fibre and nutrients during processing, leading to quick digestion and blood sugar spikes. Examples include: White bread and pasta Pastries, cakes, and cookies Sugary cereals and granola bars Processed snacks (chips, crackers, pretzels) Sugary drinks, candy, and ice cream Instant noodles and processed frozen meals White rice and refined flour products Sweetened yoghurt and other flavoured dairy products Packaged fruit juices and energy drinks How Much Carbohydrates Do Our Bodies Need? Carbohydrate needs vary depending on age, activity level, and overall health. Generally, for a an average healthy person carbohydrates should make up 45-60% of total daily calorie intake. This means that for a 2,000-calorie diet, approximately 225-300 grams of carbohydrates are recommended daily. However, the focus should be on quality over quantity —choosing whole, fibre-rich carbohydrates rather than refined, processed ones as described earlier. Athletes and highly active individuals typically require more carbohydrates for energy, while those following lower-carb diets for a period of time (for example people with Type 2 diabetes) may need fewer. To put this into perspective, here’s what different whole food sources contribute to daily carbohydrate intake: Vegetables:  1 cup of cooked broccoli (10g carbs), 1 medium sweet potato (26g carbs), 1 cup of carrots (12g carbs), 1 cup of cooked spinach (7g carbs) Legumes:  1 cup of cooked lentils (40g carbs) Fruits:  1 medium apple (25g carbs), 1 banana (27g carbs) Whole Grains:  1 cup of cooked quinoa (39g carbs), 1 slice of whole grain bread (15g carbs), ½ cup of cooked oats (27g carbs) Dairy:  1 cup of kefir (12g carbs) By combining these food groups, you can reach your recommended carbohydrate intake while ensuring a variety of nutrients and fibre to support overall health. Does Our Body Need Sugar? While our body needs carbohydrates for energy, it does not require added sugar . Natural sugars found in whole foods like vegetables, fruits, berries, whole grain and dairy come with fibre, water, and essential nutrients that slow down absorption and minimise blood sugar spikes. Added sugars, on the other hand, are linked to inflammation, obesity, and metabolic diseases. Glucose, which we obtain most easily from carbohydrates, is the primary energy source for the brain and nervous system . While the body can convert protein and fat into glucose when necessary, carbohydrates provide the most efficient and direct fuel for cognitive function and nerve signalling. Different Types of Sugars Naturally Occurring Sugars:  Found in fruits, vegetables, and dairy. These are healthier when consumed in whole food form because they are accompanied by fibre, vitamins, and minerals that support digestion and metabolic health. Refined Sugars:  Extracted and processed sugars added to foods for taste and shelf life. Examples include white sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, and glucose syrups. Hidden Sugars:  Often found in packaged foods under different names, such as maltose, dextrose, and cane juice extract. How to Choose Better Bread at the Grocery Store? Bread is one of the most widely consumed carbohydrate sources, yet quite many options available are highly processed and nutritionally poor. Choosing a better-quality bread can impact your health by improving gut health, stabilising blood sugar, and increasing fibre intake. Tim Spector, a leading nutrition scientist , suggests focusing on the fibre-to-carbohydrate ratio  when selecting bread. A good rule of thumb is to choose bread with at least 1 gram of fibre per 5 grams of carbohydrates  to ensure a slower blood sugar response and better digestion. Here’s what to look for: Whole grains as the first ingredient  – opt for breads made from 100% whole grain or whole rye flour. High fibre content  –minimum 3-5 grams of fibre per serving. I recommend to look at rye breads with minimum 6g of fibre per 100g. Minimal added sugars  – avoid bread with ingredients like high-fructose corn syrup, dextrose. Choose breads with no added sugar or if then minimally added (some manufacturers add sugar to speed up the fermentation or balance the sourness) Fermented or sourdough varieties  – sourdough bread contains beneficial bacteria that may aid digestion and help regulate blood sugar. Added seeds and whole grains  – seeds like flax, sunflower, hemp, pumpkin and chia provide extra fibre, healthy fats, and nutrients. For better gut health, avoid breads with emulsifiers and preservatives, that are used to extend shelf life, stability and texture. Avoid misleading labels like "multigrain" or "multi cereal," which do not necessarily mean the bread is made from whole grains. Checking the ingredients list and nutritional label is key to making a better choice. The Bottom Line As you have hopefully learned, carbohydrates are essential for our health, but the type and quality matter. Prioritising whole, unprocessed carbohydrates while minimising refined carbs and added sugars can help support overall health, energy levels, and disease prevention. When in doubt, opt for whole foods with minimal processing to ensure you're nourishing your body with the best sources of carbohydrates. If you’d like personalised guidance on how to optimise your carbohydrate intake and overall nutrition, book a one-on-one nutrition counselling session  with me today at info@katrinpeo.com .

Hummus is one of those wonderfully versatile foods — you can make it in dozens of ways, adjust flavours easily, and enjoy it as a spread, dip, or nourishing snack. It’s also a simple and delicious way to increase your intake of legumes , which are among the most health-supportive foods you can add to your diet. Why Add More Legumes to Your Diet? Chickpeas, beans, and lentils are naturally rich in: Dietary fibre Plant-based protein B vitamins Minerals such as magnesium, potassium, iron, and zinc Polyphenols and prebiotic compounds  that feed beneficial gut bacteria If you want to dive deeper into why legumes are so important for vibrant health, read more here: Why Beans and Lentils Matter for Vibrant Health . What Makes This Hummus Special? 1. Miso for Gut Support Miso is a savoury paste made from fermented soybeans, barley, or rice malt. Because it’s fermented, it brings natural umami flavour and also provides compounds that support a healthy gut microbiome . A spoonful or two is an easy way to add more fermented foods  to your daily menu. Miso can also be spread on the whole-grain rye bread, added to soups and sauces at the end of cooking, to salad dressings. For this recipe inspired by Meghan Telpner, I used Hatcho Miso  from Umami.ee . 2. Nutritional Yeast for Flavour & B12 Nutritional yeast is something I use frequently — both in my own meals and recommend it to my clients. It has a naturally cheesy, nutty flavour and is rich in: B vitamins, including vitamin B12  (especially in fortified varieties) Fibre and protein Trace minerals It’s an excellent option for vegans or anyone wanting to add a delicious nutritional boost. 3. Herbs & Spices for Antioxidants Dried herbs like oregano, basil, and parsley contribute not only flavour but also polyphenols and micronutrients. Chickpea–Miso Hummus Ingredients: 2 cups (1 can) chickpeas, rinsed and drained 2 garlic cloves Juice of ½ lemon ⅓ cup nutritional yeast 2 tbsp olive oil 2 tbsp miso paste 1 tbsp dried oregano 1 tbsp dried basil 1 tbsp dried parsley ½ tsp ground cumin 2 tbsp water (more as needed) Optional for sweetness and deeper flavour: 2–3 sun-dried tomatoes in oil (drained)— or — Regular dried sun-dried tomatoes, soaked in water for a couple of hours (save the soaking water) Instructions: Place all ingredients — except the water  — into a high-speed blender or food processor. I use hand-blender. Start blending and add water gradually until the hummus reaches your desired creaminess. If using soaked sun-dried tomatoes, you can use the soaking water for extra flavour. Blend until completely smooth. Taste and adjust seasoning: add more lemon for brightness, more miso for depth, or more cumin for warmth. How to Serve Your Chickpea–Miso Hummus Spread it on your favourite homemade bread  (you can find my bread recipes here: Bread Recipes ). Serve with vegetable sticks  such as cucumber, carrots, peppers, or celery. Use it as a nourishing addition to grain bowls, wraps, or roasted vegetables. Storage Store in an airtight container in the fridge and consume within 4–5 days .

Are you one of those women, who puts herself an intense training plan in place and follows it no-matter what? Maybe you like HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training), cross-fit, running, spinning classes, hard-core training classes, hitting gym to do heavy weight-lifting several times a week etc. You might be the one who says, I am going to take up running and then run every day of the week for 5-10 kilometres. Some weeks are harder than the other ones, but you still keep pushing. Or you might be the one, who really listens to your body and gives it exercise what it wants and when it wants- I am happy for you to be in-tune with your body. Unfortunately I know many women who don't do it and who go and exercise hard all the time. I have been in the past one of them as well. In recent months, I have been listening to a few doctors like Dr. Stephanie Estima sharing how our hormones work, how women should exercise and eat based on their monthly cycle and this is what I want to share below. Photo: Unsplash Why you want to eat and exercise according to your cycle? As you know, when it comes to hormones, we women are different. During the course of 4 weeks every month our hormones like oestrogen, testosterone, progesterone either go up or go down. This has an impact on our mood, our energy levels, our eating habits, but also on our fertility, our libido. In order to experience your body the best possible way you need to get to know your body. Each of the menstrual phases actually need specific diet and exercise to help your hormones function as they should. Our hormones are impacted by what we eat, how we eat, our lifestyle- sleep, exercise, stress management. Many women tend do the same thing week in week out- we eat the same way, we do the same workouts, but often we are still struggling with weight issues, with mood issues. Our bodies don't operate that way- they need different treatment at different times of the month. Same happens in the nature, the tides come and go, the seasons change, mornings turn into evenings. You must have also heard about moon cycle. If our bodies are in balance, we tend to align with the nature, where we ovulate during the full moon. Our body is more fertile when the earth is most fertile. If we learn to eat, exercise, live more based on our cycles, we become more balanced, more productive and more in tune with our bodies. Courtney Bursich says if you really tune into your body, you can actually experience all four seasons during the monthly cycle. I have written in the past as well about how to eat right for your monthly cycle, so do refer to this article as well , where I write also about seed cycling and how it can support your hormones. How to eat and exercise based on your cycle? Week 1- Menstrual phase The week starts when your menstruation starts. Most of the hormones during this week are relatively low. This is the winter season of your monthly cycle. During this time it's good to rest more, do introspective work, journal, set some intentions for the rest of the month. As your left and right brain are also more balanced during this week you are able to connect more emotional and factual things- therefore you can make better decisions. From a diet point of view it's a good week to try more ketogenic way of eating- high quality fat , moderate protein and low carbohydrate. Think around 70% fat, 20% protein, 10% carbohydrates. It's also good to focus on consuming blood building foods like organ meats (liver, heart, kidneys), dark green leafy vegetables, beetroot, sweet potatoes, red peppers, garlic, cherries, raisins, beans and lentils, nuts and seeds, eggs, red meat, turkey, chicken, shellfish, oysters, fermented dairy products, cheese. This is a good week to focus on slower pace exercise- walking, yoga, pilates. Week 2- Follicular phase This is the week after your menstruation. Oestrogen and testosterone are starting to increase. This is the spring season of your monthly cycle. Since your energy levels are increasing, you are able to be more productive. You experience good problem solving capabilities, better verbal skills. It's good to execute on projects and take on speaking engagements. This is the time, where you get work done. From a diet point of view, double the intake of protein and carbohydrates. Try 40% fat, 40% protein, 20% carbohydrates from your meals in a day . Focus on eating the rainbow (broccoli, sweet potatoes, cauliflower, yams, green leafy vegetables etc). During this week, you tend to consume less calories, burn more fat, put on more muscle. If you can show up for yourself in terms of exercise till ovulatory phase, you will see more muscle growth. This is a good time to use heavy weights in the gym. Try and stay away from heavy cardio as our tendons tend to be stiff this week. Light jog or elliptical are good choices. Week 3- Ovulatory phase This is the summer season of your monthly cycle and the pinnacle of your cycle. This is the time where we women feel the best- we are more social, glowing, libido is high. This week is a good week to return to a ketogenic diet, but add in more resistant starches (for example cooked and cooled rice and potato, green bananas, legumes, oats, whole grains, seeds). Try to eat 70% healthy fat, 20% protein, 10% carbohydrates in your meals during the day. From exercise point of view it's good to focus on strength training: 8-12 repetitions for the weights you lift. Choose weights, that you can lift 8-10 times before you feel you can't lift more. Week 4- Luteal phase This is is the autumn season of your cycle. Oestrogen level is starting to come down and progesterone is starting to rise. This is the time to slow down. Consume 40% fat, 40% protein and 20% carbohydrates during your meals. As your body is naturally hungrier this week, don't deprive it of food. It's best to avoid hard exercise during this week of the month. Try yoga, pilates- exercises that are putting you in a rested state. If you want to lift weights in the gym, go for lighter weights with 15-20 repetitions. We tend to be more inflamed during this week, therefore exercise and muscle contraction helps to release anti-inflammatory compounds. Alcohol consumption We want to be mindful of our liver, especially women in their 40s and 50s, when we consume alcohol. With the age our metabolism slows down, we become more insulin resistant, we loose muscle, we gain more fat. Liver has a very important role in the body, amongst many other functions creating hormones and detoxifying our bodies of excess hormones. Alcohol, environmental toxins, what we put onto our bodies (cosmetics), into our bodies (food, pharmaceuticals) etc all puts strain on our liver. If our liver is sluggish, it affects the rest of the body. Learn from here how you can support your liver health . If you want to learn more how alcohol affects the body and what are the upper limits for women, please read this article . Intermittent fasting and cycle It's important for women to be in tune with their bodies and not practice longer fasts (longer than 14-16 hours at night), especially if you are chronically stressed, have eating disorders, have health issues, are pregnant . In the first week of our cycle our bodies can handle fasts better, so you could try a day of water fast. In the second week of your cycle you can practice intermittent fasting or time-restricted eating. Eat for example in 8 hour eating window. But don't practice extended period of time with no food. In luteal phase, if you have hormonal issues, you tend to have more issues with sleep, your rings on your fingers might get tighter, you tend to retain more water, your bowel movements slow down. If you have oestrogen dominance, you could try bone broth fast (helps to reduce inflammation in the body). You can learn more about intermittent fasting from this article. As you can see, not all weeks are the same when it comes to hormones and it's good to have a different approach caring for your body. Learning how your body is evolving during your cycle every month can help to use your menstrual cycle to your advantage and provide better functioning. It's important to listen to your body and push it when you feel you have the energy to do so and take time to rest when the body requires it. You will be more balanced and more productive as a person. If you are not someone who tracks your cycle yet, I can recommend Flo , an app I have used for years to track my monthly cycle. If you have health goals you want to reach, whether it's around weight, stress management, sleep, exercise, don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Why Whole Foods Should Always Come First? Your body doesn’t just need protein  — it needs the nutrients that come with it . Whole-food protein sources like fish, eggs, lean meats, legumes, tofu, tempeh, Greek yogurt, nuts, seeds offer a complex package of amino acids, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and beneficial compounds that work together to support overall health. Protein powders, on the other hand, are isolated, processed fractions  of food. While they can help meet daily protein targets, they lack the nutrient density, natural food matrix, and synergy found in real foods. According to nutrition scientists at ZOE , many people in industrialised countries already consume enough protein through everyday foods. The growing market of “high-protein” shakes and bars is often driven by marketing rather than biological need . ZOE’s experts, including Prof. Tim Spector  and Dr. Sarah Berry , note that protein-fortified products like bars or shakes are typically ultra-processed , often containing added sugars, emulsifiers, or artificial sweeteners that can negatively impact the gut microbiome and overall metabolic health. 👉 You can read more on this topic in ZOE’s science-based article on protein bars . Whole-food proteins also provide micronutrients  (like magnesium, zinc, and B-vitamins) that powders don’t — supporting bone, brain, hormonal, and immune health. And because real foods digest more gradually, they promote steadier energy and blood-sugar balance. In short: real food first . Use a protein powder only as a supplement  when your daily schedule, activity level, or age makes it hard to meet protein needs from meals alone. When Protein Powders Might Make Sense You might consider adding a protein powder if you: Have a very busy lifestyle or travel frequently Train hard regularly and need post-workout recovery support Are going through perimenopause or menopause and want to make sure you preserve muscle mass next to regular physical exercise Follow a vegan diet and find it difficult to reach protein goals from food alone Even then — remember: protein powders should complement, not replace, your meals . Animal vs Plant Protein: Which Is Better? Animal-Based Proteins (Whey, Casein, Beef Isolate, Egg White) Contain all essential amino acids, including leucine , key for muscle synthesis. Backed by solid research — a large meta-analysis (Morton et al., Br J Sports Med. , 2018) showed that protein supplementation supports muscle growth and strength during resistance training. Whey isolate  is low in lactose and typically well-tolerated. 🌱 Plant-Based Proteins (Pea, Rice, Soy, Hemp, Pumpkin, Blends) Sustainable, allergen-friendly, and suitable for vegan diets. Blends (like pea + rice) can achieve a complete amino acid profile. However, plant powders are often more processed  and more prone to heavy-metal contamination , since crops absorb lead or cadmium from soil. The Question of “Clean”: What to Watch For 1. Heavy Metals and Contaminants The Clean Label Project Protein Study 2.0  found that: Nearly half of the tested protein powders contained measurable levels of lead, cadmium, arsenic, or mercury . Plant-based powders  had about 5 × more cadmium  than whey. Chocolate-flavoured powders  were most contaminated, because cocoa naturally pulls lead and cadmium from soil. Independent analyses by Consumer Reports  and Harvard Health  have echoed these concerns. Always check whether the brand provides third-party testing , publishes lab results, or holds certifications like NSF Certified for Sport , Informed Choice , or Clean Label Project Purity Award . For a related read, see my blog post: 👉 Energy and Protein Bars — Are They Really Healthy? 2. Flavouring and Additives Unflavoured or vanilla-flavoured powders are generally the cleanest choice. Chocolate versions often contain cocoa (a potential source of heavy metals) and extra sweeteners. Avoid: Artificial sweeteners like sucralose  and acesulfame-K Emulsifiers and thickeners such as polysorbates  or carrageenan “Natural and artificial flavours” or unnecessary stabilisers If you’d like to learn more about sweeteners and their effects, check out my article: 👉 Sugar-Free Doesn’t Mean Risk-Free: The Health Effects of Artificial Sweeteners 3. Ingredient Transparency A short ingredient list is in general a better choice. Better:   Whey protein isolate, natural vanilla flavour Worse:   Whey concentrate, cocoa blend, sugar, artificial flavours, sucralose, soy lecithin How Much Protein Do You Really Need? According to the British Journal of Sports Medicine  meta-analysis (Morton et al., 2018), more isn’t always better: Up to 1.6 g protein per kg body weight per day  is sufficient for muscle growth and recovery. For most active adults, that’s roughly: 90–120 g protein/day for women (60–75 kg) 110–150 g/day for men (70–95 kg) You can read more about protein in my blog: The Role of Protein in Our Bodies; Why Balance is Key The Lifelong Benefits of Protein Consumption: Nourishing Your Body at Every Stage Unlocking Health: The Significance of Protein for Individuals Battling with Metabolic Issues 12 High-Protein Foods to Eat of Muscle Gain and Weight Loss Downloadable resource: How to Get 30g of Protein in One Meal? Checklist for Choosing a Protein Powder Prioritise whole-food protein first. Choose unflavoured or vanilla  versions of protein powders when possible. Avoid artificial sweeteners and long ingredient lists. Look for third-party testing  (NSF, Informed Choice, Clean Label Project). It's important to note here, that though the protein powders mentioned on Clean Label Project page are heavy-metal free, several of them contain artificial sweeteners and emulsifiers. Therefore it's always important to read the product label when purchasing the protein powder. Rotate brands occasionally to reduce exposure to potential contaminants. Keep total protein intake in balance — powders are supplements, not staples. Take-Home Message Protein powders can be practical, but they’re not a substitute for a balanced, whole-food diet. The cleanest protein supplement is one that’s simple, third-party tested, and used in moderation — not as a meal replacement, but as a helpful backup. When you focus on real food first  and choose tested, minimal-ingredient powders  only when necessary, you support both your short-term fitness goals and long-term health. References Morton RW et al. Br J Sports Med.  2018; 52(6): 376-384. ZOE : The Science of Protein Bars — Are They Actually Healthy? Clean Label Project: Protein Study 2.0 (2024) Elchemy: Toxic Ingredients to Avoid in Protein Powders (2025) Healthline (2025): Protein Powders and Heavy Metals Harvard Health (2022): The Hidden Dangers of Protein Powders If you want to change your nutrition to be more healthy, balanced- supporting your health goals, then don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

When the weather turns cooler, our bodies crave grounding, warming foods — yet we still want freshness and colour on the plate. This vibrant salad combines roasted pumpkin, wild black rice, and protein-rich edamame with a creamy miso-ginger dressing. It’s a satisfying meal that bridges comfort and nutrition beautifully. Warm Pumpkin and Wild Rice Salad Serves 3-4 For the roasted pumpkin: 1 medium pumpkin (about 1 kg), seeds removed, skin left on 2 tbsp olive oil 1 tsp salt Dash of pepper ½ tsp cayenne pepper (optional, for a gentle heat) For the salad: 1 cup uncooked black or wild rice (about 160 g) 2 cups (500 ml) water 1 red onion, thinly diced 1 cup (150 g) shelled edamame ( I purchase frozen ones and defrost them) A generous handful of baby spinach (base) ½ cup (55 g) crumbled goat feta cheese Toasted mix of pumpkin seeds, sunflower seeds, and pine nuts For the dressing: 2 tbsp miso paste 3 tbsp olive oil 1 garlic clove, minced 1-inch piece of ginger, juice squeezed out 1 tsp honey 3 tsp apple cider vinegar ⅓ cup (80 ml) water Pinch of salt and dash of pepper How to Make It Roast the pumpkin: Preheat oven to 200°C. Cut pumpkin into cubes, toss with olive oil, salt, pepper, and cayenne, then roast for about 25–30 minutes until golden and tender. Cook the rice: Rinse the rice and cook it with 2 cups of water and a pinch of salt until tender (black rice usually takes about 30–35 minutes). Let it cool slightly. Prepare the dressing: In a small bowl or jar, whisk together miso, olive oil, ginger juice, garlic, honey, apple cider vinegar, and water until smooth. Assemble the salad: On a large plate layer spinach leaves as the base. Add warm rice, roasted pumpkin, red onion, and edamame. Drizzle with dressing and top with crumbled feta cheese and toasted seeds. Serve slightly warm or at room temperature. Nutritional Highlights Pumpkin (with skin):  A great source of beta-carotene , fibre, and potassium. Keeping the skin adds extra fibre and antioxidants. Black rice:  Rich in anthocyanins  (the same pigment found in blueberries) and provides more fibre and protein than white rice. Edamame:  A complete plant protein with all nine essential amino acids  and plenty of folate, magnesium, and iron. Spinach:  Provides iron, vitamin K, and folate , supporting energy and healthy blood. Seeds (pumpkin, sunflower, pine nuts):  Add crunch, zinc, magnesium, and healthy fats  for hormone and heart health. Miso and ginger:  Support gut health and digestion ; miso adds natural probiotics, while ginger reduces inflammation. 🥬 Lettuce and Leafy Green Comparison Choosing the right greens can boost your salad’s nutrient power. Here’s how popular types differ: Leafy Green Flavour Notable Nutrients Best Uses Iceberg Mild, crisp Low-calorie, high water content Adds crunch, not much nutrition Romaine Crunchy, slightly bitter Vitamin A, folate, fibre Caesar salads, wraps Frisée (curly endive) Bitter, crisp Folate, vitamin K Mixed salads for texture Watercress Peppery Vitamin C, calcium, antioxidants Great with citrus dressings Radicchio Bitter, colourful Polyphenols, anthocyanins Adds colour to salads and digestive support Endive Mildly bitter Folate, fibre Pairs with nuts, fruit, or cheese. Good for liver health. Arugula (rocket) Peppery Nitrates for vascular health Pizza topping, mixed salads. Good for liver health. Spinach Mild, soft Iron, magnesium , folate Smoothies, salads, sautéed Butterhead (Bibb, Boston) Soft, sweet Vitamin K, manganese Sandwiches, wraps Kale   (optional addition) Earthy Calcium, vitamin C, fibre Massage with oil for raw salads Tip:  Mix two or three varieties to increase both flavour and nutrient diversity — spinach for minerals, arugula for peppery bite, and radicchio for antioxidants. 💚 Why Variety Matters Eating a variety of greens ensures you get a broader spectrum of phytonutrients , antioxidants, and minerals. Each leaf type contains different plant compounds that support detoxification, circulation, and immunity — so think of your salad bowl as a multivitamin in natural form . Final Thoughts This salad is a perfect example of whole-food balance : complex carbohydrates from black rice, healthy fats from olive oil and seeds, plant-based protein from edamame and feta, and vibrant vegetables rich in antioxidants. It’s filling, energising, and versatile — ideal for lunch or a light dinner. For more salad recipes, click here . If you want to improve your nutrition, whether it's to loose weight, have more energy, have better digestive health, better skin health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .