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A nourishing, balanced breakfast for slow weekends or calm weekday mornings. If you’re looking for a breakfast that feels a little special but is still simple, nourishing, and balanced — this Baked oats with raspberry and ricotta  is a beautiful choice. It’s perfect for a relaxed weekend morning, but it also works during the week if you have about 30 minutes to spare at home. The recipe serves four people, making it ideal for families or for meal-prepping a couple of breakfasts ahead. What I love most about this recipe is that it combines: Complex carbohydrates from wholegrain oats Protein from eggs, milk, and ricotta Healthy fats from almonds Fibre and antioxidants from raspberries A naturally sweet, satisfying breakfast that supports steady energy and satiety — something I always emphasise in balanced meals. Why You’ll Love This Baked Oats Recipe Naturally sweetened with banana High in fibre Good source of protein No refined sugar Easy to prepare Suitable for meal prep The combination of creamy ricotta and slightly tart raspberries makes this dish feel indulgent — yet it is built from real, whole ingredients. Baked Oats with Raspberry and Ricotta Serves 4 Ingredients 2 bananas 200 g (about 2 cups) wholegrain oats 2 eggs, beaten 400 ml milk (I used cow’s milk, but you can use any milk of your choice) 1 tsp vanilla extract 1 tsp baking powder A pinch of salt 150 g raspberries (fresh or frozen; frozen work perfectly when berries are out of season) 100 g almond flakes 125 g ricotta To serve: Peanut butter or almond butter Instructions Preheat the oven to 180°C (350°F). Mash the bananas in a large bowl with a fork. Add the beaten eggs, milk, oats, almond flakes, baking powder, salt, and vanilla extract. Mix everything well until combined. Pour the mixture into a baking dish. Scatter the raspberries on top. Spoon tablespoons of ricotta over the surface. Bake for about 30 minutes, until set and lightly golden. Let it cool slightly before serving. Serve with a spoonful of peanut butter or almond butter for extra creaminess and healthy fats. Nutritional Notes This baked oats dish provides a well-balanced macronutrient profile: Carbohydrates  from oats and bananas for sustained energy Protein  from eggs, milk, and ricotta to support satiety and muscle maintenance Healthy fats  from almonds and nut butter Additional fibre and polyphenols  from raspberries If you prefer a higher-protein version, you can serve with unflavoured Greek yoghurt on the side. Variations Swap raspberries for blueberries, blackberries or chopped apples Use plant-based milk if needed Add cinnamon or cardamom for extra warmth (especially if you use apples) Add chia seeds or flaxseeds to the mixture before baking for additional fibre This is the kind of breakfast that feels comforting, yet supports stable blood sugar and lasting energy — something especially valuable for busy days. If you try it, let me know how it turns out. You can find more breakfast recipes in my blog .

Many people focus on what  they eat: carbohydrates, protein, fat, calories, fibre, and what dietary supplements they take. But an equally important question is often ignored: When do we eat? And just as importantly: how do we eat? Our digestive system is not a machine that works at the same intensity all day long. Digestion, appetite, hormone activity, and nutrient absorption are all influenced by our body’s natural rhythms. In this final article of the digestive health series I have been covering, we’ll explore how satiety, circadian rhythms, meal timing, and sleep  influence digestion, blood sugar balance, weight management, and overall wellbeing. Satiety: Why Fullness Doesn’t Happen Immediately Many people assume that the moment they stop feeling hungry, they have eaten enough. But physiologically, satiety develops in stages. Partial satiety during eating During a meal, the body creates only a partial feeling of fullness , which does not always reflect whether the body’s nutritional needs have been met. This is because satiety signals depend on: stomach stretching gut hormone release (such as GLP-1, CCK, PYY) blood sugar response nervous system feedback sensory experience (taste, smell, satisfaction) True satiety comes later The final and complete satiety signal appears 1–1.5 hours after eating . This is why many nutrition experts recommend stopping eating when you still feel slightly capable of eating more, instead of waiting until you feel “stuffed”. Eating too quickly often leads to overeating simply because the body has not yet had time to send the “I am full” message. Eating Slowly Supports Digestion and Satiety Satiety develops best when we: eat slowly chew properly take breaks between food bites eat in a calm environment Chewing is not just a mechanical step. It triggers digestive enzymes, stimulates saliva production, and activates the nervous system’s “rest and digest” mode. Eating food you dislike creates stress Forcing yourself to eat food you don’t enjoy may reduce digestive efficiency. Stress hormones influence stomach acid secretion, gut motility, and enzyme activity. The body benefits most from food that is eaten: with a healthy appetite in a pleasant environment at a moderate pace Long Gaps Between Meals Can Promote Weight Gain Skipping meals is often seen as a way to reduce calorie intake. However, very long gaps between meals can create metabolic stress for the body. When a person eats too little during the day, they often return home extremely hungry and eat quickly and excessively in the evening. This may lead to: rapid blood sugar spikes stronger insulin response in the body to get the glycose into the cells increased fat storage Insulin and the pancreas The pancreas produces insulin, a hormone that helps glucose enter the cells to be used as energy. When meal timing is chaotic and overeating happens frequently, insulin-producing cells can become overworked. Over time, insulin regulation becomes less efficient. If insulin function becomes impaired, the body may shift toward converting glucose into fat storage more easily. This is one reason why irregular eating patterns and large meal gaps can contribute to weight gain. Biorhythms and Digestion The human body is built around rhythms. Our need for food depends on: physical activity emotional state stress level illness sleep quality hormonal fluctuations For example: a normal breakfast might feel perfect on a regular workday but on an exam day or stressful morning, digestion may be disrupted and nausea or diarrhoea may appear heavy lunches can impair productivity for people doing intense mental work physically demanding work requires more energy-dense meals What Are Biorhythms? Biorhythms are inherited biological patterns developed through evolution. They appear as rhythmic repetitions in body functions. Based on their length, biorhythms can be divided into: Short cycles (seconds) heartbeat rhythm breathing rhythm brain electrical activity Medium cycles (hours) circadian rhythm (24-hour rhythm) Long cycles (days, months, years) weekly cycles menstrual cycle seasonal rhythms life stages digestive rhythm Circadian Rhythm: The Body’s Internal Clock Circadian rhythm is the body’s 24-hour biological rhythm, controlled by complex cellular mechanisms and gene expression. It influences: blood pressure body temperature metabolism sleep and wakefulness appetite hormones digestion The body functions best when it can rely on predictability . Regular routines support the body’s ability to regulate digestion and metabolism efficiently: waking up at a similar time daily eating meals at consistent times having daily movement and rest going to sleep around the same time Research shows that circadian rhythms have an affect on health outcomes and metabolic processes. ( Nature, 2018 ) Circadian Rhythm and Body Weight Studies suggest that successful weight management is not only about calories, but also about timing and of course food quality (unprocessed vs. ultra-processed foods). Eating most calories during the day—when we are active—supports metabolism. Eating late at night or before sleep may impair weight loss even if total calorie intake is reduced. Animal studies show that meal timing can be more important than calorie intake when it comes to weight changes. In experiments, mice fed during their natural active period lost weight more effectively compared to mice eating the same calories during rest periods. Scientists believe meal timing may influence circadian regulation and even lifespan. Research indicates that timing food intake in tune with our circadian rhythm can modestly reduce body weight and fat mass ( PubMed ). The Digestive Rhythm: Why Hunger Appears in Cycles Digestion has its own natural rhythm. Approximately every 3–3.5 hours , the muscles of the stomach, small intestine, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreatic ducts contract. This is accompanied by: increased digestive secretions increased bile flow activation of digestive glands This activation lasts around 20–30 minutes . If you eat, this rhythm pauses for about 3 hours while digestion focuses on processing food. Hunger is a biological signal During this activation period, hunger often appears naturally. If you eat during this window, digestion and absorption tend to work more efficiently. This is why hunger can be one of the best natural guides for meal timing. How Many Meals Per Day? Considering digestive rhythms, most adults benefit from 4–5 eating occasions  during their waking hours. This does not mean constant snacking. It means: structured main meals planned health supporting snacks when needed avoiding extreme hunger Practical Meal Timing Recommendations Here are practical guidelines to support digestion and circadian rhythms: Eat when you are truly hungry Hunger is a natural signal that the digestive system is ready. Allow time for eating main meal: 20–30 minutes smaller meal/snack: 15–20 minutes Learn your own digestive activation cycles Many people naturally become hungry every 3–4 hours. Avoid skipping meals Skipping meals can lead to overeating later and blood sugar instability. Match meals to your daily activity Mentally demanding days: prioritise complex carbohydrates like whole grains (oats, whole grain bread (rye, wheat), barley, brown rice, buckwheat, quinoa); legumes (lentils, chickpeas, beans, peas); sweet potatoes, potatoes with skin, pumpkin, corn; berries, apples, less ripe bananas; fibre rich foods , B vitamin rich foods ( you can find them in the Vitamins guide ) Physically demanding days: prioritise protein-rich meals with moderate carbohydrates and fats Follow the plate rule Aim for: half plate vegetables quarter of plate protein rich foods quarter of plate complex carbohydrates + healthy fats Avoid constant grazing Frequent snacking disrupts digestive rest cycles and can impair blood sugar stability. Sleep, Digestion, and Appetite Regulation Just like food and water, sleep is essential for recovery and health. Adults typically need around 7–8 hours of sleep , and children need even more. Sleep affects: appetite hormones (ghrelin and leptin) cravings insulin sensitivity digestion food choices Sleep deprivation increases cravings Lack of sleep increases appetite for: sugary foods , refined carbohydrates, high-calorie comfort foods (white bread, white pasta, white rice, breakfast cereals, crackers, pretzels, chips, pastries, cakes, ice cream, chocolates bars, cookies, pizza, burgers, fries etc. ) It can also shift eating later into the evening, which further disrupts circadian rhythm and metabolic balance. Sleep problems are linked to increased risk of: weight gain high blood pressure type 2 diabetes cardiovascular disease mood disorders weakened immunity Melatonin and Deep Sleep Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland and helps regulate sleep. In sleep disorders, nighttime melatonin levels may be reduced. During deep sleep, testosterone and growth hormone levels increase—this is why deep sleep is essential for recovery and development, especially in young people. Serotonin, Digestion, and Rhythms Serotonin is often called the “happiness hormone,” but it also plays a key role in digestion. A large portion of serotonin (around 90%) is found in the digestive tract. It supports: gut motility (peristalsis) digestive secretions insulin release intestinal movement When serotonin levels are optimal, digestion tends to be more effective and people often experience: satisfaction calmness improved mood a sense of wellbeing after eating Serotonin is a precursor for melatonin. And in order for the body to produce hormone serotonin, it needs amino acid tryptophan from food as well as B-vitamin rich foods. You can learn more about serotonin in this article. Shift work and serotonin disruption Studies show that people working night shifts often have lower serotonin levels than daytime workers. Digestive biorhythms are strongly connected to light exposure and circadian rhythm, which explains why digestion is often disrupted during night work. Night Shifts and Nutrition: A Special Challenge People who work night shifts have higher risk of: cardiovascular disease blood pressure fluctuations elevated cholesterol higher triglycerides obesity type 2 diabetes Night work disrupts the natural eating rhythm. The stomach and digestive system are not designed to handle heavy meals at night the same way they do during the day. Night shift workers often experience: appetite disturbances mood disturbances digestive issues (gas, diarrhoea, bloating) fatigue reduced concentration chronic stress Here are a few nutrition tips for shift workers If you work shifts, these principles are helpful: do not go to work hungry keep meal gaps under 4–5 hours include small healthy balanced snacks every 2–3 hours if needed drink water regularly avoid heavy meals during the night last larger meal should be at least 2 hours before sleep At night, it’s best to stick to light snacks such as: fruit yoghurt or kefir herbal tea wholegrain crisp bread small balanced sandwich (for example wholegrain bread, slice of salmon, slices of avocado and a salad leaf) homemade light salad Desynchronosis: When Body Rhythms Get Disrupted When biorhythms are disturbed, the body enters a state of stress called desynchronosis . This can happen due to: travel across different time zones night shift work irregular meal timing irregular sleep schedule chronic stress Symptoms may include: digestive problems (constipation or diarrhea) fatigue irritability sleep issues reduced immune resilience To reduce chronic stress and rhythm disruption, it is essential to support three main rhythms: 1. Eating rhythm Aim for 4–5 meals/snacks per day (structured, not constant snacking) 2. Sleep-wake rhythm Keep bedtime and wake-up time consistent 3. Work-rest rhythm Balance productivity with recovery Final Thoughts: Digestion Thrives on Rhythm Our digestive system works best when it feels safe, predictable, and supported. Satiety is not instant. Digestion is not constant. Hormones do not operate randomly. When we eat too fast, skip meals, or eat late at night, we are not just changing calorie intake—we are changing hormonal and metabolic signals. A healthy digestive system is supported by: regular meal timing mindful eating good sleep balanced nutrition stress reduction respecting hunger cues When we work with the body’s natural rhythms, digestion becomes smoother, blood sugar stabilises, and long-term wellbeing becomes easier to maintain. Series Summary This article completes my 5-part series exploring digestion and health: The Digestive System – A Remarkably Intelligent System Supporting Our Health Every Day How Nutrients Are Digested and Absorbed in the Body Diverse Nutrition and the Gut Microbiome – The Invisible Foundation of Health Appetite and Eating Behaviour Regulation – Why Do We Eat Even When We’re Not Hungry? The current article: Satiety, Circadian Rhythm, and Digestion: Why When You Eat Matters as Much as What You Eat If you want to improve your nutrition, change your daily habits to support your health and need guidance how to do it step by step, don't hesitate to reach out to me for nutrition counselling. You can learn more about my services here .

In spring, when we get the first dandelions and nettles in the garden I start with a routine to make a green drink boosting of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and serve it for myself, my husband and for our son as the second drink in the mornings (after a glass of water). Our daughter has not yet shown interest towards it as it looks too green for her. This green drink routine runs into early autumn till we still have fresh green ingredients to add into the drink. Then we typically change over to fermented drinks (like kombucha , beet kvass , coconut water kefir etc) in the mornings or warming teas or elixirs in the evenings during the cold months of the year. The below drink is good for supporting bodily detox systems, supports liver and gallbladder health, packs good amount of fibre for digestive health as well as vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (below I name just a few next to the ingredients). You can add and remove ingredients as you feel and as they are available. Fruit such as apple or pear gives the slight natural sweetness to the drink. Learn more here how and why you need to support your liver health . Revitalising Green Drink To Start Your Day Serves 3 Ingredients: 1 cup dandelion leaves (contains vitamins A, B9 (folate), C, K and minerals calcium, potassium) 2 stalks of celery (hydrating, contains vitamins A, C and K and minerals calcium, sodium and iron, also high in antioxidants) 1 cup kale leaves (contains carotenoids, vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, C, K, and minerals manganese, magnesium, iron and calcium) ½ cucumber (hydrating, contains vitamins C and K, minerals potassium, sodium) 1 apple or pear (contain vitamin C, K (pear) and potassium) 2.5cm piece fresh ginger root (adds a zesty kick and aids digestion as well as contains vitamins C, B6 and minerals calcium, iron, magnesium) 1 teaspoon black cumin seeds (boosts immunity and has anti-inflammatory properties, contain vitamins C and B6 and minerals (iron, magnesium, calcium, zinc, copper) Juice of 1 lemon (for a tangy touch and contains vitamin B6, C and minerals calcium, magnesium, iron) Filtered water (around 1 cup) I also add into the drink Elsavie fibre mixture if I have it available and 1/2 teaspoon of spirulina or chlorella. Instructions: Wash all ingredients thoroughly. If your blender is not high-powered, chop the dandelion leaves, celery, kale, cucumber, apple/pear, and ginger root into smaller pieces. Vitamix blends the ingredients nicely. Add all ingredients into a blender. Squeeze in the lemon juice. Blend until smooth. Pour into a glass and serve. Tip : Enjoy this drink first thing in the morning for a refreshing start to your day!

Beets are filled with phytonutrients called betalains that support liver detoxification. They contain fibre and vitamins and minerals like folate, manganese, copper, potassium, magnesium, vitamin C, vitamin B6 and iron- all important for heart health, bone health, brain health, energy production etc. Beet kvass is a probiotic drink, similar to kombucha or coconut water kefir - a perfect blood tonic and an excellent liver cleanser. Probiotics are important for our gut health, to increase the quantity of good bacteria. Beet kvass is made similarly to making sauerkraut , pickles, where you ferment beets in slightly salted brine for a few days. The taste is similar to fermented vegetables- lightly sour, a little bit sweet and salty. Learn more here why and how you can support your liver health . Easy beet kvass recipe Makes approx 500ml Ingredients 2 cups of cubed beets 2 tbsp of juice from your sauerkraut or other fermented vegetable. You can also add 2 tbsp of apple cider vinegar (make sure you use the one with 'mother' in it) 1/2 tbsp of sea salt or Himalayan salt 2 cups of filtered water I like to add boosters like grated fresh ginger and fresh turmeric when making the beet kvass. Instructions Wash the beets and place them in a 1l (1 quart) glass jar. Add the fermented vegetable juice or apple cider vinegar, together with the salt. If you like ginger and turmeric, add these grated in in there as well (a thumb size grated or so). Cover with a cheesecloth or with a coffee paper filter an an elastic band. Leave on the counter or in a warm place at room temperature for 2 days. Consume 1/4 cup or so daily as a blood tonic and to support your liver health. Stores in the fridge for 6-8 weeks. You can also mix some raisins or strawberries in there, or add some mint leaves for additional flavour. Don't discard the beets, you can use them as a nice garnish together with steamed greens to add some tangy flavour.

Our brain is the most complex organ in the body. This 1.3kg control and command centre contains more than 80 billion neurones, which facilitate every action, every feeling and every thought in our bodies. Brain contains also blood vessels and capillaries, which provide brain cells with the oxygenated and rich blood they need in order to thrive. There are also hormones, neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin etc) that help pass neural messages from cell to cell. Photo source: Unsplash Our brains consume 20 percent of everything we eat and the foods we consume provide the nutrients and energy to produce and support each element that makes up our brains. For example B vitamins help with conducting nerve impulses; selenium, magnesium, zinc provide building blocks to form cells and brain tissue, but also help with synthesising neurotransmitters. If our bodies are deprived of any of the below brain-healthy nutrients- our mood, cognition, overall function will ultimately suffer. If we don't consume enough B12, iron and folate containing foods, our bodies can't make the adequate levels of serotonin, which is important mood-enhancing chemical. People who have experienced depression, anxiety, brain trauma know how brain has the influence to affect your overall wellbeing dramatically. I have experienced it first-hand and know the importance of food as one of the several pillars important for healing from brain injuries, brain surgeries, reduce anxiety and depression. In the below article I will cover the 14 nutrients that are important for better brain health, why they are needed and how to get them from foods. Vitamin A Carotenoids, like lycopene, serve as an antioxidant and protect the brain; lutein and zeaxanthin protect your vision. Found in chicken liver, beef liver, sweet potato, mustard greens, carrot, pumpkin, butternut squash, kale, broccoli, spinach, red bell pepper, green peas, tomato, butter, egg yolk, cod liver oil, raw whole milk, cheese, mango, papaya, peach, cantaloupe melon, dried apricots, oatmeal, basil. Vitamin B1 (thiamine) Thiamine helps to turn glucose for usable energy. Low thiamine will contribute to low energy, apathy, brain fog and irritability. Found in nutritional yeast, spirulina and other seaweeds, sunflower seeds, macadamia nuts, pecan nuts, black beans, lentils, organic soybeans, navy beans, white beans, pinto beans, mung beans, peas, asparagus, Brussels sprouts, beef liver, pork, trout. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) Important for tryptophan production (mood enhancing hormone and precursor for serotonin), helps to fights inflammation, reduces homocysteine (build up of this amino acid causes inflammation), lowering depression. Found in turkey breast, wild salmon, grass-fed beef, chicken, pistachios, tuna, pinto beans, avocado, blackstrap molasses, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, chickpeas, bananas, potatoes. Vitamin B9 (folate) Folate regulates mood, sense of pleasure and clarity of thinking. Also, folate processes homocysteine. Found in chickpeas, Brussel sprouts, asparagus, lentils, black-eyed peas, chicken liver, beef liver, spinach (cooked), Romaine lettuce, avocado, broccoli Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) Protects your brain cells, needed for making serotonin and dopamine, reduces inflammation (homocysteine) Found in beef liver, sardines, Atlantic mackerel, lamb, wild-caught salmon, nutritional yeast, feta cheese, grass-fed beef, cottage cheese, eggs, oysters, mussels, clams. Vitamin C It’s highly concentrated in the cerebral spinal fluid that surrounds your brain and is important for cognitive performance Found in black currant, red pepper, green bell pepper kiwi, guava, orange, strawberries, papaya, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale, parsley, pineapple, mango, lemon, grapefruit, honeydew melon, peas, tomatoes. Choline Needed for brain development, function, learning and memory. Found in beef liver, salmon, chickpeas, navy beans, eggs, grass-fed beef, turkey, chicken, Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, scallops, goat milk Iron You need iron in the form of hemoglobin to transport oxygen to the brain. Iron helps to make serotonin, dopamine (feel good hormones). Found in spirulina, beef and chicken liver, grass-fed beef, lentils, dark chocolate (85% cocoa), spinach, sardines, black beans, pistachios, raisins, pumpkin seeds, eggs, chickpeas, kale, chicken, sesame seeds, oysters. Here I have a full article on the importance of iron and iron rich foods. Magnesium Important for the proper function of the nerve cells and brain cells; stimulates brain growth, helps to control blood sugar. Found in seaweed, amaranth, cooked spinach, kale, chard, sunflower seeds, black beans, mung beans, soybeans, mackerel, cashews, flaxseeds, almonds, dark chocolate, pumpkin seeds, avocado, banana, broccoli, Brussels sprouts. Here is my detailed article on magnesium and magnesium rich foods. Monounsaturated fats Both monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are important for brain health, helping lowering depression. Found in olive oil, beef, fish, almonds, salmon, flaxseed oil, hemp seeds, mustard, grass-fed meat Omega- 3 fats DHA especially (in fish) in Omega-3 helps to build brain cells, fight inflammation in the brain. Found in wild salmon, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, herring, cod liver oil, tuna, caviar, oysters, walnuts, leafy greens, ground flaxseeds, hemp seeds, chia seeds, soybeans, natto, egg yolks. Potassium Every nerve impulse and each of your heart beats depends on potassium. Caffeine can negatively affect potassium absorption. Found in avocado, lima beans, Swiss chard, beet greens, acorn squash, kale, spinach, sweet potato, wild-caught salmon, dried apricots, pomegranate, coconut water, white beans, banana, broccoli, sardines, peas, beets, grapefruit. Selenium Selenium helps with the production of glutathione (an important antioxidant in your brain), improves blood flow. Offers protection from oxidative damage. Found in Brazil nuts, salmon, tuna, halibut, shrimp, lobster, turkey, cottage cheese, chicken, mushrooms, eggs, navy beans, sardines, sunflower seeds, grass-fed beef, oats, beef liver. Excess selenium can be toxic, therefore supplement only short period of time. Zinc Zinc is key to your immune function, which protects you from infections, excess inflammation, and cancer. Found in oysters, lamb, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, grass-fed beef, chickpeas, lentils, cocoa, cashews, kefir, yoghurt, ricotta cheese, mushrooms, spinach, avocado, chicken, almonds, eggs. Food has the power to improve mental health, preventing conditions like anxiety and depression or helping to alleviate these symptoms. It's our choice how we want to feed our brain. In this article I cover in more detail how you can support your mood with food . If you have health goals you want to reach, health challenges you are trying to conquer and are looking for a health and nutrition coach to support you on your wellness journey, don't hesitate to reach out to me at info@katrinpeo.com .

I, like many people I know, have been struggling with periods of anxiety and stress. And when we are stressed or anxious , we tend to forget about breathing. Yes, it's something that happens any way, but the way we breath changes when we are in a fight or flight mode. In the below article I would like to highlight the importance of deep breathing for health and give 4 easy to practice breathing exercises throughout the day. I start my mornings with these four exercises and be kind to myself. If I can manage to do 20 minutes, great. If I manage to do only 5 minutes, also good. A good tip to enhance the breathing practice further is to diffuse or apply essential oils, that ground you and reduce the feelings of anxiety - like frankincense, cedarwood, sandalwood, rosemary, vetiver, juniper berry. This is me 6am in the morning doing my breathing exercises outside. I remind myself during the day to take those deep breaths or practice the deep breathing when: I am driving (with eyes open :)) I am taking our dog out for a walk I boil water for my tea I exercise etc Why is deep breathing necessary? Breathing occurs without you having to give really thought to it. When you breath in, your blood cells get oxygen and release carbon dioxide. It's carried through your body and exhaled. When we are anxious we breath shallow and faster and often breath from the chest. Chest breathing causes an imbalance in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in your body, resulting in an increased heart rate, anxiety, dizziness, tensed muscles and other physical sensations. When we breath deeply, using our belly (which is also called diaphragmatic breathing), we put our bodies in rest and digest mode, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system. Notice next time when you see a baby sleeping, how she/he breaths. Focused deep breathing: reduces anxiety lowers blood pressure lowers stress improves sleep promotes calmness improves concentration and focus supports a strong immune system reduces muscle tension, therefore may help with pain management helps to make it easier to fall asleep can improve your mood Belly Breathing A good starting point to put more focus on deep breathing is to practice belly breathing. We hopefully do that at night when we are in deep relaxed state of sleep. It's good to determine first whether you are using your belly or chest for breathing. Put one hand on your upper abdomen, near your waist. And put your other hand in the middle of your chest. Now take a few breaths and notice which hand raises the most. To breath properly with your belly, your abdomen should expand when you breath it and contract when you breath out. Breath in through your nose and out through your nose This breathing can be practiced anywhere and is very good to practice during the moments of stress and anxiety. It's also a good way to bring focus to the present and ground yourself here and now. Alternate-Nostril Breathing (nadi shodhana) I feel this breathing practice brings that extra needed air into my body and both hemispheres of my brain, bringing me into balance. This breathing technique involves breathing in through one nostril at a time, while blocking the other one and alternating between the nostrils. Position your index and middle finger together gently on your forehead just above your eyebrows. With your thumb close your right nostril. Inhale deeply through your left nostril. Close with your ring finger your left nostril and release your thumb from the right nostril as you breath out (you could also keep both of your nostrils closed and hold your breath for couple of seconds before you breath out). Then as you have your ring finger closing the left nostril, breath in from the right nostril, then close your right nostril with thumb, release your left nostril and breath out. Repeat 5-10 times. If you do feel a little bit lightheaded, take a break and breath normally through both nostrils. 4-7-8 breathing I learnt about this breathing technique from Dr. Andrew Weil lecture at IIN school, where I study. This is a deep breath that I have practiced in the mornings as well as when I am driving. Dr. Andrew Weil prescribes it as a natural tranquilizer for the nervous system. Put the tip of your tongue gently behind your upper teeth against the ridge of the tissue for the duration of the breathing practice. Exhale deeply through your mouth, making a whooshing sound. Close your mouth and inhale quietly through your nose while counting to 4 in your head. Then hold your breath for a count of 7. And then exhale completely through your mouth to a count of 8, making a whooshing sound. You can repeat this 5-10 times and also throughout the day (you can set yourself reminders on your phone if that helps). Dr. Joe Dispenza breathing technique I don't know if there is a specific name of this breathing technique, but I started practicing it when I wanted to find ways to support my healing from a brain surgery. I typically end my breathing practice with 5 or so below breaths. Here is a video how Dr. Joe Dispenza explains this breathing technique . Sit comfortably on the chair, on the floor, or on the meditation pillow with your back straight. You start breathing in long and slowly, tug in your perineum, then your lower abdomen, then your upper abdomen. You move your attention while still keeping your lower body pulled in and tight, to your lungs, to your throat, to your head and then above your head. You can imagine, that you are pulling the energy through your spinal fluid from your sacrum slowly up to the top of your head, while you are taking a breath in. Remember, where you put your focus is where you put your energy. And then you release and breath out. Repeat 5 times or so. If you feel dizzy, take a break and breath normally. You might want to lie down after this breathing on the floor and sense how your body is feeling and whether you notice any change in energy. There are of course many more deep breathing techniques to practice, but if you haven't put your focus on deep breathing exercises in the past, above is a good start. You can learn more about stress and about the tools how you can better manage it in your life in this article . You might also be interested in learning more about the adaptogens , which are natural substances (usually herbs, roots, or mushrooms) that are believed to help the body adapt to stress and restore balance (“homeostasis”). If you are looking to reduce stress, anxiety in your life, wanting to understand how to better support your body during stressful life, don't hesitate to contact me at info@katrinpeo.com for nutrition counselling and health coaching.

If you or someone close to you is experiencing high blood pressure, one of the contributing factors could be excessive salt intake. Have you ever assessed how much salt you consume daily? Excessive Salt Consumption: A Modern Concern Salt is an essential part of the diet, but excessive consumption has become a significant health issue in modern eating habits. Understanding where salt comes from, its health effects, and how to reduce intake can help improve overall well-being. Sources of Sodium and Salt in the Diet Sodium, primarily consumed as salt (sodium chloride), is present in various foods both naturally and as an additive. Processed foods , such as ready-made meals, processed meats, snacks, and preserved products, often contain high levels of added salt. Additionally, condiments, sauces, and even certain bread varieties contribute to daily sodium intake. Here’s an overview of natural sodium levels in different foods: Seafood  (naturally higher due to ocean water exposure) Shrimp: ~140–300 mg sodium per 100g Salmon: ~40–60 mg per 100g Cod: ~50–100 mg per 100g Clams: ~500–700 mg per 100g Meat & Poultry  (naturally low, but sodium increases with processing) Chicken (raw): ~50–80 mg per 100g Beef: ~50–70 mg per 100g Pork: ~40–60 mg per 100g Eggs: ~60–90 mg per egg Dairy Milk: ~40–50 mg per 100mL Cheese: ~100–700 mg per 100g (varies by type, with harder cheeses being higher in sodium) Yogurt: ~40–60 mg per 100g Vegetables  (naturally low, but some exceptions) Spinach: ~80–120 mg per 100g Celery: ~70–90 mg per 100g Beets: ~60–90 mg per 100g Carrots: ~40–50 mg per 100g Fruits  (generally very low in sodium) Apples, bananas, berries, oranges: <5 mg per 100g Cantaloupe: ~10 mg per 100g Legumes & Grains Beans (unsalted, cooked): ~0–15 mg per 100g Rice, oats, quinoa (cooked): ~0–5 mg per 100g Nuts (unsalted): ~1–5 mg per 100g Seaweed (Exceptionally High in Natural Sodium!) Nori (dried seaweed): ~500–1,500 mg per 100g Wakame: ~800–1,200 mg per 100g Kombu: Up to 2,000 mg per 100g Health Implications of Excessive Salt Intake Too much salt in the diet is linked to several health concerns, including: High blood pressure (hypertension)  – A major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks and strokes. Kidney strain  – Excessive sodium can impair kidney function, potentially leading to kidney disease. Calcium loss  – Increased salt intake may cause calcium depletion, affecting bone health. Water retention  – High sodium intake can lead to bloating and edema. Learn more about high blood pressure here, what cause it and how you can naturally lower it . Recommended Salt Intake Health experts recommend limiting salt intake to minimise health risks. Guidelines suggest that: Adults should consume no more than 5–6 grams of salt per day  (approximately one teaspoon). 6 grams of salt = 2.4g of sodium. This is the total amount of salt from all sources, including the amount converted from natural sodium to salt. The body requires around 1.5 grams of salt per day to get the necessary sodium for essential functions. Most people consume more than the recommended limit  due to hidden salt in processed foods. The maximum allowed amount of 6 g of salt per day can be obtained by eating any of the following: 13 g of bouillon cube 140 g of salted herring 250 g of ketchup 300 g of potato chips 350 g of wieners 400 g of cheese 500-600 g of bread The Role of Sodium in the Body Despite the risks of excessive intake, sodium plays crucial roles, including: Transmission of nerve impulses Maintaining water balance  between blood and tissues Regulating acid-base balance  in the blood Supporting muscle contraction However, the need for sodium varies based on body weight, physiological conditions (illness, vomiting, diarrhoea), and physical activity levels that lead to excessive sweating. So with heavy sweating or diarrhoea the need for sodium may be higher. How to Reduce Salt Consumption Reducing salt intake involves a mix of dietary choices and cooking habits: Choose Fresh, Unprocessed Foods:  Fresh vegetables, fruits, berries, whole grains, lean meats, and legumes naturally contain low sodium levels. Processed Foods : Buy ready-made meals and salty semi-finished products as rarely as possible (pizza, sandwiches, burritos, tacos, frozen dinners, chips, popcorn, crackers, pretzels, salted butters, salted nuts). Read Food Labels:  Check sodium content and select products labeled as "low-sodium" or "no added salt." Mineral water can also contain large amounts of sodium. Be sure to read the label on the package. In some cases, for example, in cases of heavy sweating, drinking sodium-rich mineral water is justified. Cook at Home:  Preparing meals from scratch allows control over salt content. Use herbs, spices, and citrus for additional flavour rather than adding excessive salt. Limit High-Sodium Condiments:  Use sauces, mayonnaise, dressings, and spreads sparingly. Balance Your Meals: If your meals are high in salt, balance your sodium intake – add foods high in potassium such as fresh fruits and vegetables to your menu Be Mindful When Dining Out:  Request that dishes be prepared with less salt if possible and avoid adding extra salt at the table. Gradual Reduction:  Slowly decrease salt intake so taste buds can adjust. Understanding Salt in Foods and Labels Many processed and packaged foods  contain hidden sodium. Salt content is often listed on nutrition labels , either per 100g/ml or per portion. Sodium may also be contained in additives. For example, sodium nitrite, which must be written on the label either as “preservative sodium nitrite” or as “preservative E 250”. The total salt amount on the label includes both added salt  and naturally occurring sodium , using the formula: 1 gram of sodium = 2.5 grams of salt . If the food does not contain added salt, the packaging may state that the salt content is only due to the presence of natural sodium. Types of Salt and Their Differences While there are various types of salt, their health impacts remain the same. Key types include: Sea salt:  Naturally evaporated seawater, contains trace minerals. Rock salt:  Mined from underground deposits, contains trace minerals calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron. May contain impurities. Table salt:  Refined and processed for purity, often iodised. Iodised salt:  Fortified with iodine to support thyroid health. I often recommend to my clients to use to iodised salt or mix it into their other salt and use it when cooking to help to make sure they get the necessary iodine from the diet. If you do have thyroid conditions (hyperhyroid, Hasimoto's Thyroiditis), please consult with your healthcare provider about the iodine intake through salt. Pan salt:  Reduced sodium content, replaced with potassium chloride and magnesium sulfate. Celtic salt (Sel Gris) : Harvested from tidal salt flats along the coast of France, particularly in Brittany. Contains magnesium, calcium, potassium, and other trace minerals. Himalayan Pink salt : Mined from ancient salt deposits in the Punjab region of Pakistan, near the Himalayas. Contains trace amounts of iron, calcium, potassium, and magnesium, but not in significant amounts for health benefits Any salt is not a significant source of minerals. Which means that you do not have to eat salt to obtain minerals. Although some salts may contain more minerals than regular table salt, they cannot be considered a source of the corresponding minerals (except iodised salt). With reasonable consumption amounts, regardless of the salt used, the amounts of minerals (except sodium) obtained are very small. Considerable sources of minerals are cereals (especially whole grains), potatoes, fruits and vegetables and berries, milk and dairy products, fish, (poultry) meat, eggs, added dietary fats, nuts, seeds. Conclusion The human body needs sodium, but excessive intake leads to severe health risks. Processed foods often contain hidden sodium, making it essential to read labels, choose fresh foods, and limit high-sodium ingredients. By making gradual changes, you can train your palate to enjoy less salty foods while protecting your long-term health.

In January 2025, the Estonian Health Development Institute published new national recommendations for diet, physical activity, and sleep. In this article, I will briefly explain what these recommendations are, provide a historical overview, and share also Estonians' dietary habits based on a 2014 study with the recommended intake. However, the main focus will be on the 2025 national dietary, physical activity, and sleep guidelines, outlining the changes and updates compared to the previous 2017 version. Photo source: Canva What is Healthy and Balanced Nutrition? Many countries worldwide have developed their own dietary and physical activity guidelines to help people make informed choices about their daily nutrition and movement. The goal of national dietary recommendations is to provide science-based guidelines for maintaining or achieving good health. These recommendations consider the body's physiological needs and are designed for the entire population, including children, adolescents, adults, seniors, as well as pregnant and breastfeeding women. The dietary guidelines allow you to follow a healthy and balanced nutrition. When following dietary recommendations, individual allergies and intolerances must be taken into account. For people with chronic diseases, it is important to consider whether the illness or medications affect nutrient metabolism, thereby altering normal physiological needs. In Estonia, dietary and physical activity guidelines are used by various professionals, including nutrition counsellors, dietitians, doctors, family nurses, educators, researchers, and policymakers. The recommendations are publicly accessible to everyone. History of the Recommendations Since Estonia's regain of independence in 1991, now four national dietary and physical activity recommendation documents have been published: 1995 2006 2015  (updated in 2017 ) 2025 Estonian National Dietary Recommendations 2025 The 2025 guidelines align with the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations (published 2023) and are based on guidance from the Nordic working group . Additionally, they take into account Estonian eating habits, food availability, and environmental sustainability. The updated national physical activity guidelines follow the World Health Organization (WHO) 2020  recommendations. The recommendations published this year are currently available only in a table format , but in 2026, the Health Development Institute has plans to release a comprehensive version , including detailed explanations on nutrition, food, physical activity, screen time, and sleep recommendations . New chapters on food safety and food labelling  will also be added. In Estonia, the food pyramid , the plate rule , and the physical activity pyramid  are used to communicate these recommendations to the population. The food pyramid below shows the weekly amounts of food in different food groups a person with 2000kcal energy requirement would need to eat, which will help to cover the needs of the body for necessary macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, fat) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Key Changes and Updates in the 2025 Recommendations 1. Micronutrients (Vitamins and Minerals) The recommendations for nearly all micronutrients  have been updated, with many increased . It is important to note that micronutrient requirements differ based on gender, age, and if in woman's case she is pregnant or breastfeeding . 2. Changes in Food Group Names The top section  of the food pyramid has been renamed: Previously: Sugar, Sweets, Sweet and Savoury Snacks Now: Sweets, Snacks, and Other Unnecessary Foods for the Human Body Vegetables  are brought forward in its food group to emphasise their importance in the diet even more. Nuts  have been moved to the front in its food group: Previously: Added Fats, Nuts, Seeds, and Oilseeds Now: Nuts, Seeds, and Oilseeds, and Added Fats , highlighting the importance of nut consumption in the diet. 3. Macronutrient Adjustments (Proteins, Fats, Carbohydrates) The upper limit  for fat intake  as a percentage of daily energy intake has increased  to 40%  (previously 35%). Fat consumption can  be close to 40%  of daily energy only if saturated fat intake stays below 10% from all the fats . The lower limit  for carbohydrate intake  has decreased  to 45%  (previously 50%). Carbohydrates should ideally be at least 50%  to ensure sufficient fibre intake, especially for those with gut microbiome imbalances. 4. New Recommendations for Fruits, Vegetables, and Legumes Unlike previous guidelines, the new recommendations  set minimum  intake levels rather than a range. Legumes  should ideally be consumed daily  due to their good plant protein and fibre content . Highly sweet fruits  (e.g., bananas, grapes, passion fruit, tamarind ) should be limited to one serving per day . Berries should be prioritised over fruit  to increase fibre and antioxidant intake. Fruit juice  (e.g., orange juice) should be limited to once per week (1 glass) . 5. Cooking and Processing Recommendations When frying, roasting, or baking bread products, potatoes, and other starchy vegetables , avoid excessive browning or burning  to reduce acrylamide formation  (a compound linked to cancer and DNA damage). More information on acrylamide 6. Meat and Processed Meat Recommendations Meat consumption guidelines remain unchanged : Meat products should be consumed as little and as rarely as possible . When choosing processed meats  (sausages, hot dogs, bacon, etc.), prefer higher meat content  and with lower saturated fat and salt levels . Similar recommendations apply to processed fish products . With natural fish consumption one should consider dioxin risks  (updated quantity recommendations forthcoming). 7. Dairy Recommendations Prefer unsweetened dairy products  (e.g., plain yogurt, cottage cheese, quark). Flavoured dairy products  (e.g., sweetened yogurt, quark) should now be counted as both: A dairy portion  and A "Sweets, Snacks, and Other Unnecessary Foods" portion Example: 100g of sweetened yoghurt = 1 dairy serving + 1 sweet serving . Desserts like curd snacks, ice cream, pudding (including protein pudding), condensed milk, fruit-flavoured dairy drinks, and cheese-based snacks  are now classified under Sweets, Snacks, and Other Unnecessary Foods . 8. New Guidelines for Plant-Based Alternatives For the first time, the recommendations provide guidance on incorporating plant-based beverages (e.g., soy, oat, almond drinks) and plant-based meat substitutes (e.g., legume- and grain-based patties, minced alternatives, tofu, tempeh, seitan, nutritional yeast) into one’s diet. 9. Intake of Sweets The recommended maximum intake of sweet treats has been slightly adjusted. It is advised that children under 2 years old should not consume any added sugars or foods containing them , particularly sugar, candy, sweets, pastries, or sugary drinks. Children aged 3–6 may consume up to two chocolate candies or one curd snack per day, provided they do not eat other sweet or salty snacks or sweetened dairy products. From age 11, the maximum daily intake of sweets could be, for example, four cookies, three chocolate candies, or 400 ml of a sweetened drink. Learn more about the different added sugars in foods and how consuming too much added sugar could affect health from this article. 10. Artificial Sweeteners Try to avoid foods and beverages containing artificial sweeteners. If consumed, do so infrequently and in small amounts. Learn more about the artificial sweeteners here . 11. Household Measurements Included The updated guidelines now include food portion sizes not only in grams but also in household measurements (tablespoons, deciliters, cloves, slices, etc.) to make it easier to understand appropriate portion sizes for different food groups. 12. Alcohol Consumption There is no safe level of alcohol consumption. No one should drink alcohol, but it is especially important for minors, pregnant women, and breastfeeding mothers to avoid it entirely. Learn about recommendations for alcohol limits for women and men here . 13. Physical Activity Physical activity recommendations are now given as a range, emphasising the importance of regular movement. Adults should aim for at least 30 minutes of daily physical activity , totalling 150–300 minutes per week of moderate-intensity activity  or 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity , or a combination of both. Strength exercises targeting all major muscle groups should be included at least twice a week , and balance and stretching exercises at least three times a week . 14. Sedentary Time and Screen Time All adults should reduce sedentary time and screen time . Stretching breaks should be taken at least once per hour . Children under 2 years old should avoid screen time entirely , while children from 2 years old to school age should limit it to a maximum of 60 minutes per day —but less is always better. 15. Sleep Recommended sleep duration is 6.5–11 hours , with 7–9 hours  being optimal for most people. Daytime naps for preschool-aged children (3–5 years old)  should be based on individual needs, and for adults over 55 , a short nap of up to 30 minutes  may be beneficial. In this article I write about the importance of sleep and give guidelines on how to improve the quality of your sleep . How Do Estonians Actually Eat? A 2014 Estonian Population Nutrition Study  revealed dietary habits based on people consuming 1,800–2,200 kcal daily . The study highlighted that most people should: ✅ Increase whole grain consumption  (bread, porridge) ✅ Eat more vegetables , including legumes ✅ Consume a wider variety of fruits and berries ✅ Replace sweetened dairy products with unsweetened versions ✅ Reduce red meat and processed meat consumption ✅ Eat more fish , prioritising fresh fish over processed fish products ✅ Increase nut and seed consumption ✅ Reduce sweet and salty snacks ✅ Drink more plain water ✅ Move more ➡️ How does your weekly diet compare to the recommended pyramid?  What changes could you make to eat more healthily and in a more balanced way? How to Eat Healthily? A healthy and balanced diet  means eating a variety of foods from all five food groups  to obtain the necessary macronutrients and micronutrients. The food pyramid illustrates what to eat more of and what to eat less of , along with weekly food portions in different food groups . Foods at the top of the pyramid— sweets and salty snacks—are not essential for the body  and should be consumed rarely and in small amounts . Of course there are 'personalised' food pyramids, if you have an allergy, intolerance, specific health condition that requires you to leave out certain foods, but then it's always important to understand how can you fulfil the needs from within other foods in the pyramid to get all the necessary nutrients in your diet. In this article I share how to make healthier food choices daily when doing grocery shopping . If you find these guidelines confusing and want a nutrition counsellor  to assess your diet—highlighting what's good, bring out potential deficiencies, and provide you with personalised recommendations based on your lifestyle—feel free to contact me for nutrition counselling and health mentoring . 📩 Email me at   info@katrinpeo.com  to schedule a nutrition counselling session. You can learn more about the services I provide here .

Dementia is often perceived as a condition that affects only the elderly. However, emerging research indicates that the processes leading to dementia can commence much earlier—sometimes as early as our 40s. Understanding this gradual decline is crucial for early intervention and prevention. What Is Dementia? Dementia is an umbrella term for a range of conditions characterised by cognitive decline severe enough to interfere with daily life. The most common form is Alzheimer’s disease, but other types include vascular dementia , Lewy body dementia , and frontotemporal dementia . Symptoms range from memory loss and confusion to changes in behaviour, personality, and the ability to carry out everyday tasks. Women are disproportionally affected by it more, both directly and indirectly. Women not only experience higher dementia-related disability and mortality but also provide 70% of caregiving hours for those affected. Why Do We Develop Dementia? While age is a significant risk factor, it's not the only cause. Genetics do play a role, particularly in early-onset cases, but lifestyle factors are increasingly recognised as critical contributors. Chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, and even hearing loss can increase risk. Infections like herpes and syphilis have also been linked to higher dementia risk, particularly in older adults. What’s becoming clearer is that the lifestyle choices we make in our 30s, 40s, and 50s can lay the foundation for brain health—or decline—decades later. How Prevalent Is Dementia Today? Dementia is a growing public health issue. As of 2021, over 57 million people worldwide  were living with dementia . That number is expected to rise to 78 million by 2030  and 139 million by 2050 . There are over 10 million cases of dementia diagnosed each year worldwide . Between 2017 and 2023, a total of 4,042 new cases of dementia were diagnosed in Estonia. These numbers highlight the urgent need to shift our focus from late-stage treatment to early prevention . It Doesn't Start When You're Old Contrary to popular belief, dementia doesn't suddenly appear in old age. The changes in the brain that lead to cognitive decline can start decades before symptoms are noticeable. Many of the biological processes that contribute to dementia—such as inflammation , oxidative stress, insulin resistance, and poor blood flow—can begin in midlife, or even earlier. That’s why it’s so important to adopt brain-supporting habits in your 30s and 40s, not wait until retirement. A Slow and Steady Decline Dementia develops gradually. The earliest signs—such as occasional forgetfulness, mood changes, or difficulty concentrating—may be dismissed as normal aging or stress. But these small changes can be the first clues in a slow progression. Left unchecked, symptoms worsen over time, interfering with independence, communication, and quality of life. Recognising early warning signs and making lifestyle changes can significantly delay—or even prevent—severe cognitive decline. 🥦 Nutrition and Brain Health: What to Eat and What to Avoid One of the most powerful tools for supporting long-term brain health is nutrition . The food you eat doesn’t just fuel your body—it literally shapes your brain. ✅ Foods That Support Brain Health: 1. Leafy Greens  – Spinach, kale, arugula, and Swiss chard are rich in folate, vitamin K, and antioxidants. 2. Berries  – Especially blueberries and blackberries, which are packed with brain-protective flavonoids. 3. Fatty Fish  – Salmon, mackerel, and sardines are high in omega-3s (DHA), which are vital for brain structure and signalling. 4. Nuts and Seeds  – Walnuts, flaxseeds, chia seeds, and pumpkin seeds provide healthy fats, vitamin E, magnesium, and zinc. 5. Extra Virgin Olive Oil  – A staple of the Mediterranean diet, known for its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. 6. Cruciferous Vegetables  – Broccoli, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts support detoxification and reduce inflammation. 7. Whole Grains  – Brown rice, oats, and quinoa offer steady energy and B vitamins that support nerve health. 8. Fermented Foods  – Sauerkraut, kimchi, and water kefir promote gut health, which is closely linked to brain health through the gut-brain axis. 9. Dark Chocolate (in moderation)  – Rich in flavonoids that improve blood flow to the brain and enhance mood. 10. Herbs & Spices  – Turmeric (curcumin), rosemary, sage, and cinnamon all have anti-inflammatory or memory-enhancing benefits. 🚫 Foods and Habits to Reduce or Avoid: 1. Ultra-Processed Foods  – Instant meals, processed meats, and packaged snacks are often full of additives and trans fats that promote brain inflammation. 2. Refined Sugars & Sweetened Beverages  – These spike blood sugar and insulin levels, which are linked to cognitive decline. 3. Trans Fats  – Found in margarine, fried foods, and baked goods; associated with poor memory and increased dementia risk. 4. Artificial Sweeteners  – Especially aspartame, which may negatively impact mood and brain chemistry. 5. Excess Alcohol  – Long-term overconsumption can damage brain cells and reduce brain volume. 6. Very Low-Fat Diets  – The brain needs healthy fats to function well; avoid extreme fat restrictions. 🌟 Hope Through Prevention The good news? Up to 90% of Alzheimer’s cases may be preventable  with changes in lifestyle, according to neurologists Drs. Ayesha and Dean Sherzai . Their NEURO plan (Nutrition, Exercise, Unwind, Restore, Optimise) outlines practical, daily steps to support brain health and reduce dementia risk: Eat a brain-supportive diet Move your body regularly (30 minutes of low intensity every day and 150 minutes of high intensity every week) Manage stress and unwind Prioritise quality sleep Challenge your mind (learn a new language; take up a musical instrument; try calligraphy, knitting, painting; play brain games (Sudoku, chess, memory card games) and puzzles; read books; memorise poems or song lyrics); and stay socially connected 💬 Final Thoughts Understanding that dementia is not just a disease of old age—but a lifelong process—can shift how we approach brain health. By taking action earlier in life and focusing on nutrition, movement, and mindful living, we can protect our cognitive abilities and live with greater vitality for longer. 🧠 Your brain health journey begins now—not at 70. Lanzone Morgan, California elder abuse attorneys, have created a list of 62 tips on caring for a loved one who already has a dementia, covering areas like safety, hygiene needs, routine, managing emotions and behaviour etc. You can find it here . If you want to improve your diet, to better support your brain health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com

Eating is not only about survival. Yes, food is the body’s main source of energy and nutrients needed to build and repair tissues. But eating is also emotional, social, comforting, and sometimes simply habitual. We eat because food tastes good. We eat because it’s lunchtime. We eat because we’re stressed, bored, tired, or overwhelmed. And sometimes… we eat even when our body doesn’t truly need fuel. So what is really happening inside the body when we feel hungry—or when we suddenly crave something sweet? This article is part of my mini-series of articles on ' The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite', where I share the knowledge that I have gained in my online course at Tallinn Health University of Applied Sciences. You can read my previous articles here: The Digestive System – a Remarkably Intelligent System Supporting Our Health Every Day How Nutrients Are Digested and Absorbed in the Body Diverse Nutrition and the Gut Microbiome – The Invisible Foundation of Health Let’s take a closer look at how appetite is regulated. Hunger vs. Appetite – Not the Same Thing Hunger  is a biological signal that your body needs energy and nutrients. Appetite , on the other hand, is more psychological and emotional. It is a learned motivation to eat, often triggered by external factors such as: the smell of food the sight of a favourite dessert taste memories social situations emotional states For example, you may not be physically hungry, but the smell of freshly baked pastries or grilled meat can still create a strong desire to eat. At the same time, a stressed or sick person may truly need nutrients, but feel no appetite at all. The Brain Controls Eating More Than We Realise The regulation of eating behaviour is controlled by a complex system involving the digestive tract, blood chemistry, hormones, and the brain. The “feeding center” is located in several areas of the central nervous system, including: the hypothalamus the brainstem the limbic system (emotions and reward) the cerebral cortex (thinking and decision-making) These brain areas receive signals from the body and decide whether we should start eating… or stop. Why Do We Feel Hungry? Key Theories Explained Simply Over the years, researchers have developed several theories about what triggers hunger. 1. The Glucostatic Theory (Blood Sugar Theory) This theory suggests that hunger is triggered by a drop in blood glucose levels . When blood sugar drops, the brain receives a signal: “We need fuel.” After eating carbohydrates, insulin is released, glucose enters cells, and the brain receives a “safety” signal—leading to a feeling of satiety. 2. The Aminostatic Theory (Protein and Amino Acids) This theory suggests that appetite is influenced by the level of amino acids in the blood . After a protein-rich meal, amino acid levels rise and hunger tends to decrease. This helps explain why protein often keeps us full longer. In this article I write how much protein do we need to get from food and what are the highest protein containing animal and plant foods. 3. The Lipostatic Theory (Body Fat and Long-Term Energy Storage) This theory focuses on the role of fat tissue and leptin , a hormone produced mainly by fat cells. Leptin acts as a long-term regulator of energy balance. When energy stores are sufficient, leptin sends a signal to the brain: “We have enough stored energy—reduce appetite.” When someone diets or loses weight, leptin levels drop, and the brain responds with increased hunger and cravings. This is one of the reasons why long-term dieting can feel so difficult: the body is biologically designed to protect its energy reserves. Interestingly, many overweight individuals have high leptin levels but suffer from leptin resistance —meaning the brain does not respond properly to leptin signals, similar to insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes. 4. The Thermostatic Theory (Body Temperature Theory) This theory suggests that eating increases body temperature, and warmer blood affects the hypothalamus in a way that reduces appetite. Although this theory exists, evidence is less strong compared to other appetite-regulating mechanisms. Serotonin, Tryptophan, and the Craving for Carbohydrates One of the most fascinating appetite-regulating factors is serotonin , a neurotransmitter strongly connected to mood, appetite, and satiety. Serotonin production in the brain depends on the amino acid tryptophan , which we must get from food. Here’s the important detail: Why carbohydrates can influence serotonin After eating carbohydrates, insulin levels rise. Insulin affects amino acid balance in the bloodstream in a way that may help tryptophan enter the brain more easily. Once tryptophan reaches the brain, it can be converted into serotonin. This helps explain why many people experience a calmer mood and reduced appetite after eating a balanced meal containing complex carbohydrates. However, this does not  mean consuming foods and drinks with added sugar (cakes, cookies, sweet pastries, ice-cream, candies, soft drinks etc) is the solution. Because sugary foods and drinks are digested quickly, they offer a fast (but fleeting) boost, leading to a cycle of cravings as the brain seeks more serotonin. During times of stress or hormonal changes (like PMS), serotonin levels may drop, causing increased cravings for carbohydrates and sugar. The best support for stable serotonin production in the body comes from whole-food sources such as: whole grains (whole rye, barley, wheat, oat) legumes (lentils, beans) vegetables and fruit pair complex carbohydrates with tryptophan-rich protein-packed foods like turkey, chicken, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts, seeds) foods rich in B vitamins (needed for serotonin synthesis). You can find the foods containing different B-vitamins under my Resources page Vitamins one pager. Eating only tryptophan-rich protein foods (such as meat, eggs, or cheese) is not always an effective way to increase serotonin levels, because tryptophan must compete with other amino acids to cross the blood-brain barrier. Complex carbohydrates help by triggering insulin release, which lowers the levels of competing amino acids in the blood and allows more tryptophan to enter the brain. This is why combining tryptophan-rich protein with complex carbohydrates (such as eggs with whole-grain bread or turkey with quinoa) may better support stable serotonin production. Serotonin and Sleep: The Melatonin Connection Serotonin is also used to produce melatonin , the hormone responsible for sleep regulation. That means good nutrition doesn’t only influence appetite and mood—it can also influence sleep quality. Appetite and Seasons: Why Winter Can Feel Harder Serotonin levels tend to be higher in summer and lower in winter, especially in Northern countries with limited sunlight. This is one reason why many people: crave more carbohydrates in winter feel more tired experience mood drops or seasonal sadness find weight management harder during darker months Sunlight has a powerful influence on mood and appetite regulation. Leptin, Sleep, and Why Poor Sleep Increases Hunger Leptin does not only respond to fat storage and energy balance—it is also affected by sleep. Short sleep duration can reduce leptin levels and increase appetite. Most adults need around 7–8 hours of sleep a night , although individual needs may vary. Poor sleep is one of the most underestimated reasons why weight loss becomes difficult. Ghrelin – The Hunger Hormone That Makes Dieting Hard Another major appetite hormone is ghrelin , produced mainly in the stomach. Ghrelin increases appetite and rises when we restrict food intake. This is why low-calorie diets often lead to strong hunger signals: the body responds by producing more ghrelin. Ghrelin is also connected to growth hormone release and energy regulation. When we eat less, ghrelin rises. When we eat enough, ghrelin decreases. Why Fullness Doesn’t Happen Immediately Many people think fullness happens during a meal. But in reality: true satiety often appears 60–90 minutes after eating. That is why eating too quickly can easily lead to overeating. This is also why mindful eating habits matter: eat slowly chew well avoid distractions stop eating before feeling full Eating in a calm environment supports digestion and satiety signals. Long Gaps Between Meals Can Backfire If someone eats very little during the day and then comes home extremely hungry, they are likely to eat too fast and too much. This can lead to blood sugar spikes and increased insulin demand. Over time, repeated patterns of overeating in the evening may contribute to insulin resistance and weight gain. Regular meals with balanced macronutrients can help stabilise appetite and energy levels throughout the day. So Why Do We Eat When We’re Not Hungry? Because eating is not only controlled by the stomach. We eat because of: hormones (ghrelin, leptin, insulin) brain chemistry (serotonin, dopamine, reward pathways) habits and routines emotions and stress smell, taste, and food availability sleep quality and seasonal changes Appetite is a complex system designed to keep us alive—and sometimes that system is triggered even when the body doesn’t truly need food. You might also be interested in reading an article on ' What is your relationship with food? ' Key Takeaway If you want to support healthy appetite regulation, focus on the basics: balanced meals (protein + complex carbohydrates + healthy fats) enough sleep regular meal timing stress management more whole foods, less ultra-processed foods mindful eating habits Because sometimes the problem isn’t “lack of willpower”—it’s biology. Learn more here about a balanced nutrition . Learn more here about how you can improve your sleep . Learn more here how you can better support your body through stress . If you want want to improve your diet, but are unsure what to focus on first, what could work with your resources and lifestyle, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personal nutrition counselling. Learn more about my services here: https://www.katrinpeo.com/services .

Blood sugar (glucose) is your main source of energy. It influences how hungry or energetic you feel. Blood sugar is created when you break down any carbohydrate you eat- from a healthy carb like quinoa to a chocolate-chip cookie. The importance with blood-sugar is to keep it balanced: not too high and also not too low. It's also important to understand that glucose rises after meals are normal: what matters is how high , how long , and how often and the person’s metabolic health overall Concerns arise when glucose remains elevated for long periods or when the body regularly struggles to bring levels back to baseline. Persistent dysregulated glucose metabolism — especially over years — is associated with an increased risk of conditions such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic dysfunction. However, many symptoms like fatigue, mood changes, or hormonal imbalances can have multiple causes and require comprehensive assessment. Optimising our glycose levels allow us to lower the symptoms we are experiencing. If you eat with every meal adequate amount of protein, fat, fibre together with carbohydrates- you naturally help to keep the blood sugar more stable and have consistent energy throughout your day. How is blood sugar regulated in your body? Your pancreas creates hormone called insulin, that gets released into the blood stream to regulate blood sugar when you eat. The normal range for blood sugar (empty stomach) is 4 - 5,5 mmol/l. Insulin transfers the blood sugar into blood stream and into your cells for immediate energy or storage for later use. If you eat too much sugar or other refined carb-rich foods that get way faster converted into blood sugar, then your pancreas goes into overdrive to produce all the necessary insulin for the glycose to be stored in the cells. Such an insulin surge tells your body that there is plenty of energy available and that it should stop burning fat and rather start storing it. Yes, insulin is a fat storage hormone. Low and high blood sugar Low blood sugar occurs when the insulin surge causes too much of blood sugar to be transported out of your blood. It can leave you feeling hungry, tired, shaky and anxious. As a consequence, you crave more sugar and carbohydrates, hoping that these will get you to a better place. But in reality, they start the cycle all over again. And your body ends up storing more fat. Contrary, high blood sugar occurs when your insulin is unable to transport enough blood sugar out of your blood. Blood sugar and weight Loss To help with long term healthy weight loss or healthy weight maintenance, you need to keep your blood sugar in balance in between the meals and where there is no excess insulin produced by the body. How can you balance your blood sugar? If you avoid or keep simple carbohydrates and sugar consumption to a minimum, you can naturally help to balance your blood sugar. Definitely, do not starve yourself as this causes your body to produce stress hormones that prevent weight loss. The resulting low blood sugar from starvation causes your body to go into muscle burning, slowing down your metabolism. Eating balanced meals during the day is what you should be focusing on. Simple carbohydrates include different types of sugar, such as sucrose (table sugar), fructose (fruit sugar (also in honey)), lactose (dairy sugar), glycose. You can read my blog post on sugar and why it's best to lower its consumption it here . All of the simple carbohydrates get metabolised fast and therefore most likely cause an insulin surge in the body. Think how you feel next time when you eat for example an egg with avocado for breakfast or when you drink a glass of orange juice and have a white bread with jam on it. The fructose in the juice and the sucrose in the jam will have you probably craving and eating throughout the day. The easiest and best way to stabilise your blood sugar is to eat protein, fat, fibre and greens with each of your meal. Fat - if you consume fat alone, it has no influence at all on circulating blood sugar. If you eat it with your meal, it slows down the absorption of your meal therefore helping to avoid spikes in blood sugar. I am talking here about the healthy fats (olive oil, nuts, seeds, avocado, ghee, coconut oil). Protein - it helps to keep blood sugar levels steady. Again, if you consume protein by itself, it has no impact on blood sugar. But you should be mindful and not consume too much protein as it may converted into glucose. A good size of protein per meal is the size of your palm. I have written a blog post on the highest protein containing foods . as well as the importance of consuming sufficient amount of protein at every meal at different ages in your life . Fibre - same as fat, fibre helps to slow down the absorption of nutrients, including glucose. All vegetables and fruits contain fibre and are best consumed in a whole state, rather than juiced. When you would want to juice your vegetables and fruits is when you are unwell and need a fast dose of vitamins and minerals into your body. But at other times, consume whole vegetables and fruits, make smoothies mixing the two and adding some protein and fat into it to slow down the absorption of carbs. You can read more about the fibre, why we need it and from which foods we can get it here . Greens - when you add greens like spinach, kale, broccoli sprouts, sunflower sprouts, you add minerals and vitamins to your meals. For example magnesium in green vegetables increases your insulin sensitivity. Other tips helping you to keep your blood sugar in balance Different foods affect our blood sugar different ways. For some people eating a banana takes their blood sugar up high, for the others it does not create such a spike. Our bodies are different and how food affects us, is influenced by many factors- what our diet looks like during the longer period of time, what is the state of our health, how much we exercise, how much we sleep, what are our stress levels etc. Continuous glycose monitor Continuous glucose monitors are devices that measure glucose levels continuously throughout the day by sensing glucose in the fluid just under the skin. They can provide insight into how meals, movement, sleep and stress influence glucose patterns, which may help inform food choices for some individuals. However, these devices were originally developed as medical tools for people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes and for individuals with gestational diabetes , where frequent glucose monitoring is a cornerstone of clinical management. For people without diabetes, CGM devices can show normal glucose fluctuations, but interpreting the data accurately can be complex and sometimes misleading, because healthy glucose levels naturally rise and fall after meals. Experts caution that using CGMs without clear clinical indication may not provide meaningful health benefits for the general population and should not replace standard metabolic assessments. If you are considering using a CGM to explore your glucose patterns, it’s best to do so in collaboration with a qualified healthcare professional (such as an endocrinologist or physician) . They can help you determine whether it is appropriate for your situation, explain what normal and abnormal glucose values mean for you specifically, and guide how to apply the insights in a way that supports your overall health goals rather than focusing on isolated glucose readings alone. Some wellness-focused platforms, such as Levels and Veri , offer CGM-based programs for people who want to explore their metabolic responses, but the results should still be interpreted with care and in context with a healthcare professional. Eat your food on the plate in the right order The order in which you eat foods in a mixed meal can influence how your body responds to carbohydrates. Research shows that starting a meal with non-starchy vegetables and protein, and eating starchy carbohydrates later, may lead to lower post-meal glucose and insulin responses compared with eating carbohydrates first. This effect appears to be due to a combination of slower gastric emptying, increased fibre and protein intake, and hormonal signals from the gut that help regulate glucose absorption. For example, eating salad and vegetables before starchy foods like pasta may help your body absorb carbohydrates more gradually and reduce sharp short-term blood sugar rises. However, this strategy should be viewed as one part of a balanced eating approach rather than a standalone magic solution, and individual responses can vary. Opt for more savoury breakfast Meals that combine protein, healthy fats and fibre tend to slow glucose absorption and may lead to smaller post-meal glucose improvements compared with carbohydrate-heavy meals, but individual responses vary. Examples of savoury breakfast: Lentils or quinoa or buckwheat with soft boiled egg and avocado Oats with seeds and almond butter Smoothie that contain not more than half a cup of fruit or berries and contains good fat and protein Warm chia pudding with hemp hearts and ghee Rice cake with avocado, salmon and sesame seeds Sourdough bread with scrambled eggs, kale, cherry tomatoes, kimchi Sourdough bread with hummus, sauerkraut, hemp seeds and sprouts Chia seed pudding with raspberries, nut better and hemp seeds Ground chia seeds blended with cocoa and avocado Move after the eating After eating your energy goes from your head and limbs into digestion system. That's why many can feel tired after a meal. Your muscles are your ally here, where they help to soak up the circulating glycose from your blood stream. A 10 minute walk after a meal is a great choice or taking your dog outside for a walk. Eat fat or protein with your carbohydrates Don't eat sweet or starchy food without adding some protein, fat or fibre on it. You could put greek yoghurt on your cookie if you want to eat it. Eat your sourdough bread with some goats cheese spread and avocado on it. If you have some rice, have some eggs, chicken, fish with it. The less high blood sugar spikes you have after breakfast and lunch, the better you feel throughout the day. If you are looking to understand more about better eating habits for your body, lifestyle, don't hesitate to contact me for nutrition counselling and health coaching at info@katrinpeo.com. Learn more about my services under Services .

Your liver is one of the most hardworking organs in your body. It performs hundreds of essential tasks every single day , including processing nutrients from food, helping regulate blood sugar and cholesterol, producing bile for digestion, storing vitamins and minerals, and breaking down substances that could be harmful to the body. Many people associate the liver mainly with alcohol metabolism, but its role goes far beyond that. Your liver is involved in energy production, hormone regulation, immune function, digestion, and detoxification processes  — and keeping it healthy is essential for long-term wellbeing. The good news? Your liver is also remarkably resilient and has the ability to regenerate. With the right lifestyle habits, you can support it effectively and reduce the risk of liver-related disease. What Does the Liver Actually Do? Your liver is responsible for a wide range of processes that keep your body functioning smoothly. Some of its most important roles include: 1. Metabolism of Nutrients The liver processes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats after digestion and helps convert them into usable forms of energy. It also stores glycogen, which can be released later when your blood sugar drops. 2. Producing Bile Bile is a substance produced by the liver that helps you digest and absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). It is released into the intestines through the gallbladder. 3. Regulating Blood Sugar and Cholesterol The liver helps maintain stable blood sugar levels by storing and releasing glucose. It also plays a central role in producing and clearing cholesterol and triglycerides. 4. Storing Nutrients Your liver stores important nutrients, including: Iron Vitamin A Vitamin B12 Vitamin D Copper Folate These reserves are vital for immunity, blood formation, energy levels, and brain health. 5. Supporting Detoxification and Waste Removal Your liver transforms substances such as alcohol, medications, and metabolic waste products into forms that can be eliminated through bile or urine. Importantly, this “detoxification” is not something that happens only occasionally — it is a continuous, daily process . A healthy body does not need special detox diets or cleansing protocols for the liver to do its job. Do You Need a Liver Detox? There is a widespread belief that we need to “cleanse” or “detox” the liver. In reality, the liver does not work like a filter that becomes clogged with toxins. If your liver is truly struggling, it is usually due to liver disease or long-term damage , not because you missed a green juice or didn’t drink lemon water. Most commercial liver detox programs are not supported by strong scientific evidence. In some cases, extreme detox protocols can even be harmful, especially if they involve: very low-calorie diets excessive supplementation prolonged fasting herbal products that affect liver enzymes large doses of “cleansing” compounds The most effective way to support your liver is through consistent, evidence-based lifestyle habits , not short-term detox trends. Signs of Possible Liver Problems (When to See a Doctor) Many wellness articles list symptoms like fatigue, bloating, acne, mood swings, or brain fog as signs of a “sluggish liver.” These symptoms can occur for many reasons and are not specific indicators of liver dysfunction. However, there are certain signs that may indicate liver disease and should not be ignored: yellowing of the skin or eyes (jaundice) dark urine or pale stools unexplained persistent fatigue swelling in the legs or abdomen pain or discomfort in the upper right abdomen unexplained nausea or appetite loss easy bruising or bleeding abnormal liver blood test results If you suspect liver issues, it’s always best to consult a healthcare professional and request proper testing rather than self-diagnosing. What Can Harm the Liver? Liver damage can develop gradually over time. Some of the most common and well-researched risk factors include: 1. Excess Alcohol Alcohol is one of the leading causes of liver inflammation and long-term liver disease. Even moderate drinking can increase risk if combined with metabolic problems or genetic predisposition. 2. Fatty Liver Disease and Metabolic Dysfunction Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasingly common worldwide and is strongly linked to: excess body fat insulin resistance type 2 diabetes high triglycerides high blood pressure Today, fatty liver is considered one of the most important liver health concerns in modern populations. 3. Medications and Overuse of Painkillers Certain medications, especially in high doses or long-term use, can strain the liver. A common example is excessive acetaminophen/paracetamol use, which can be toxic to the liver. Always follow recommended doses and consult your doctor when using long-term medication. 4. Viral Hepatitis Hepatitis A, B, and C can cause liver inflammation and damage. Vaccination (where available), safe food handling, and medical screening are important protective measures. 5. Highly Processed Diet and Excess Sugar A diet high in refined carbohydrates, added sugars, and ultra-processed foods may contribute to liver fat accumulation and inflammation over time, especially when combined with sedentary lifestyle. How to Support Liver Health 1. Maintain Healthy Blood Sugar Balance One of the best ways to support your liver is by improving metabolic health. Stabilising blood sugar reduces fat accumulation in the liver and lowers inflammation. Helpful habits include: eating balanced meals with protein, fibre, and healthy fats reducing sugary drinks and desserts prioritising whole foods choosing complex carbohydrates over refined ones 2. Eat More Fibre-Rich Plant Foods Fibre supports digestion, cholesterol metabolism, and gut health — all of which indirectly support the liver. Excellent choices include: vegetables berries legumes oats flaxseeds chia seeds whole grains 3. Include Liver-Friendly Nutrients in Your Diet Some nutrients are particularly important for liver function: Choline  (eggs, salmon, soybeans) Omega-3 fats  (fatty fish, walnuts, flaxseeds) Antioxidants  (berries, herbs, leafy greens) Polyphenols  (olive oil, green tea, coffee, cocoa, colourful plants) These compounds may help reduce oxidative stress and inflammation. 4. Eat Cruciferous Vegetables Regularly Vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and kale contain sulphur-containing compounds and antioxidants that support normal detoxification pathways in the liver. They are not “cleansers,” but they do support normal metabolic function. 5. Drink Coffee (If It Works for You) One of the strongest nutrition-related findings in liver research is that moderate coffee intake is associated with a lower risk of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even liver cancer in multiple observational studies. For many people, 1–2 cups of coffee daily  may have protective effects. Of course, individual tolerance matters. 6. Stay Hydrated Water supports digestion and helps the body eliminate metabolic waste through the kidneys. While hydration doesn’t “flush toxins,” it supports normal physiological elimination. 7. Move Your Body Physical activity improves insulin sensitivity and helps reduce liver fat. Even moderate movement can make a measurable difference. Aim for: walking daily strength training 2–3 times per week moderate cardio several times per week The most important factor is consistency. 8. Prioritise Sleep and Stress Regulation Chronic stress and poor sleep are linked to inflammation, hormonal imbalance, increased cravings, and insulin resistance — all of which can affect liver health indirectly. Simple daily practices such as breathing exercises, time in nature, journaling, and consistent bedtime routines can be surprisingly powerful. What About Supplements and Herbs for Liver Health? Many herbs are marketed as liver detoxifiers. Some of these contain compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and milk thistle (silymarin) is among the most researched. However, it is important to understand that: evidence is often limited or inconsistent supplements do not “cleanse” the liver herbs can interact with medications poor-quality supplements may contain contaminants If you choose to use supplements, prioritise reputable brands with third-party testing and consult a healthcare professional if you take medications or have liver disease. The Best “Liver Detox” Is a Healthy Lifestyle Your liver is designed to detoxify and regenerate — but it needs your support through daily habits, not extreme cleansing routines. The most effective liver-supportive lifestyle includes: balanced nutrition rich in whole foods limiting alcohol maintaining a healthy body weight supporting blood sugar balance regular movement good sleep and stress management avoiding unnecessary medications and supplements regular check-ups when needed Final Thoughts Your liver is essential for digestion, metabolism, hormone regulation, and natural detoxification. Most people don’t need detox diets or harsh cleanses — instead, the liver thrives when you support it with consistent, realistic lifestyle habits. The goal is not to “clean” your liver.The goal is to reduce the burden on it  and support it through nutrition, movement, and a healthier everyday routine. Your liver works hard for you — and small daily choices can make a big difference. If you need help and guidance around your health challenges, want to improve your nutrition, don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Our skin is the largest organ of the body and serves as a complex ecosystem that protects us from environmental stressors while interacting with our immune system. Just like the gut, our skin is colonized by trillions of microorganisms — bacteria, fungi, viruses and even microscopic mites — collectively known as the skin microbiome . These microbes are not just passive passengers; they are active members of our skin’s defence and regulatory systems. What Is the Skin Microbiome? The skin microbiome is a diverse community of microorganisms that live on the surface and within layers of the skin. The specific composition varies by body site (e.g., oily vs dry areas), age, sex, immune status and environmental exposures. Each person’s skin microbiome is unique, shaped by genetics as well as lifestyle and environmental factors. Why the Skin Microbiome Is Important? Far from being “just bacteria,” the skin microbiome performs essential functions: Barrier protection  — Beneficial microbes help reinforce the skin’s physical and chemical barrier, making it harder for harmful pathogens to invade. Immune regulation  — Commensal microorganisms interact with the skin’s immune cells and help maintain balanced immune responses. They stimulate antimicrobial peptide production and contribute to immune tolerance, reducing inappropriate inflammation. Competition with pathogens  — Good microbes compete with harmful organisms for space and nutrients, which can reduce the risk of infection and inflammatory flare-ups. Support for healing  — Some organisms contribute to processes involved in wound healing and barrier restoration. Emerging research also suggests that the skin microbiome may interact with systemic immune and metabolic pathways, including the gut–skin axis, though many mechanisms are still being investigated. What Happens When the Skin Microbiome Is Out of Balance? When the delicate balance of the skin microbiome is disrupted — a state called dysbiosis  — the risk of skin conditions can increase. Imbalances are associated with inflammatory dermatoses such as: Atopic dermatitis (eczema) Acne vulgaris Psoriasis Rosacea In dysbiosis, there is often a reduction in microbial diversity or an overgrowth of specific species capable of triggering immune responses and inflammation. What Can Disrupt the Skin Microbiome? Multiple factors can affect the microbial balance on the skin: Hygiene practices  — Frequent washing with harsh soaps or antibacterial products can strip beneficial microbes and alter pH. Skincare products  — Ingredients such as high-pH cleansers, strong detergents, fragrances and preservatives may disrupt microbial communities. Environmental exposures  — Pollution, UV radiation, climate and even urban living environments can influence microbial diversity. Age and hormones  — Microbiome composition naturally changes across the lifespan and with hormonal shifts. Systemic health conditions  — Conditions like diabetes, immune dysfunction or chronic inflammation can affect the skin environment. How Can We Support a Healthy Skin Microbiome? Taking care of your skin microbiome involves both what you do to your skin externally  and how you support your body internally : Gentle Skincare Practices Use pH-balanced, gentle cleansers. Avoid over-sanitising or antibacterial products unless medically necessary. Choose skin products formulated to support the skin barrier (e.g., ceramides, fatty acids, gentle moisturisers). Balanced Nutrition and Hydration While the direct impact of food on the skin microbiome is still an active area of research, diet clearly influences systemic inflammation and immune function, which in turn affect skin health. Diets rich in colourful plant foods, antioxidants, omega-3 fats and fibre support overall microbial diversity and reduce inflammatory burden. Learn more about the skin and gut health in this article . Healthy Lifestyle Factors Quality sleep and stress management support immune balance. Regular movement and hydration ( drinking enough water ) support circulation and skin function. Minimising exposure to pollutants and excessive sun without protection can help preserve barrier integrity. What About Probiotics and Prebiotics for the Skin? Topical and oral probiotics/prebiotics are being studied for their potential to support the skin microbiome. Early evidence suggests that certain probiotic strains and prebiotic ingredients may help modulate inflammation and support barrier function. However, results vary between individuals and strains, and more clinical research is needed to identify which  products and regimens are effective. Importantly, these interventions do not replace foundational habits  like gentle skincare and a nutrient-dense diet. A Balanced View: What We Know  vs What We Speculate The skin microbiome is a rapidly evolving field. We know that: Skin microbes contribute to defense, immune regulation and barrier function. Microbial imbalance is associated with common skin conditions. External and internal lifestyle factors influence microbial communities. What is still emerging : precise mechanisms linking the skin microbiome to distant organs which specific probiotics/prebiotics are most beneficial for the skin how diet and systemic microbiomes (gut) directly influence skin microbes Final Thoughts Our skin microbiome is a dynamic, interactive ecosystem that plays a key role in skin health and overall wellbeing. Caring for it means moving beyond superficial treatments and understanding how lifestyle, environment and daily habits shape not only your skin’s appearance but also its resilience and function. By supporting the skin barrier, preserving microbial balance, and nurturing whole-body health, we can create lasting benefits that go beyond cosmetics.

Skin is our largest organ and often the first place where internal imbalances become visible. While skin problems are frequently treated only from the outside, growing scientific evidence shows that many skin conditions are influenced by processes happening inside  the body – particularly inflammation, immune function, hormonal balance, and gut health. This does not mean that every skin issue has a single internal cause or that topical treatments are unnecessary. Rather, skin health is best understood as part of a whole‑body system , where nutrition, digestion, lifestyle and internal regulation all interact. Skin as a Window into Overall Health The skin plays a vital role in protection, temperature regulation, immune defence and communication with the environment. Because it is metabolically active and closely connected to the immune and nervous systems, disturbances inside the body can manifest as: acne eczema and atopic dermatitis psoriasis rosacea chronic dryness, irritation or delayed healing In many cases, these conditions are associated with systemic inflammation , altered immune responses, or metabolic stress rather than being purely cosmetic concerns. People struggling with chronic skin conditions are referred to dermatologists, who prescribe topical antibiotics, gels, creams and often also prescribe medications and/or antibiotics that need to be taken internally. But little did I know back in 2016 that instead of focusing on what to put on top of the skin to hopefully heal the skin condition, we need to focus on the inside of our bodies- what we eat and drink, how we take care of our gut and how we take care of our liver. No, food is not the only area people with skin issues need to focus on, but this is a good starting point, especially if you have not been really thinking whether and how the food you eat, affects your body and your skin. In this article I cover the importance of taking care of your bodily organs to support the health of your skin. The Gut–Skin Axis: What Does It Mean? Research increasingly supports the concept of a gut–skin axis  – a bidirectional communication pathway between the gut microbiome , the immune system and the skin. The gut microbiome refers to the trillions of microorganisms living primarily in the large intestine. These microbes help: break down dietary fibres produce bioactive compounds such as short‑chain fatty acids regulate immune signalling influence inflammatory processes throughout the body When the gut ecosystem is balanced and diverse, it supports immune tolerance and anti‑inflammatory pathways. When this balance is disrupted (a state known as dysbiosis ), immune regulation may shift toward inflammation, which can contribute to skin symptoms in susceptible individuals. Inflammation as a Common Link One of the strongest connections between gut health and skin health is chronic low‑grade inflammation . Inflammation is a normal and necessary biological response. However, when it becomes persistent, it may contribute to: increased skin sensitivity impaired skin barrier function flare‑ups of inflammatory skin conditions Diet quality, gut microbial balance, stress, sleep and metabolic health all influence inflammatory signalling in the body. Intestinal Permeability – What We Know You may have heard the term “leaky gut.”  In scientific literature, this is referred to as increased intestinal permeability . Some studies suggest that changes in gut barrier function may allow bacterial components or microbial metabolites to interact more directly with the immune system. This interaction may contribute to systemic inflammation in certain conditions. However, this mechanism is complex, varies between individuals, and is still being actively researched. Rather than viewing intestinal permeability as a single cause of skin disease, it is more accurate to see it as one possible contributing factor  within a broader physiological context. The Role of Nutrition in Skin and Gut Health Nutrition strongly influences both the gut microbiome and inflammatory balance. Diets consistently associated with better gut and skin health tend to be: rich in dietary fibre high in plant diversity based on minimally processed foods sufficient in key micronutrients Foods that support microbial diversity and metabolic health include: vegetables of different colours berries and fruits legumes (beans, lentils) whole grains nuts and seeds herbs and spices fermented foods such as kefir, yoghurt, sauerkraut and kimchi These foods provide fibres, polyphenols and other compounds that nourish beneficial gut bacteria and support immune regulation. Ultra‑Processed Foods and Skin Health Highly processed foods often contain: refined carbohydrates low levels of fibre emulsifiers and additives excess saturated fats and added sugars Regular consumption of ultra‑processed foods has been associated with increased inflammation and reduced gut microbial diversity, both of which may negatively affect skin health over time. Probiotics, Prebiotics and a Food‑First Approach Probiotics  are live microorganisms that may provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. Prebiotics  are fibres and compounds that feed beneficial bacteria already present in the gut. While probiotic supplements can be useful in specific clinical situations, they do not replace a varied, nutrient‑dense diet. A food‑first approach  remains the most reliable way to support long‑term gut and skin health. Face Mapping – A Note on Traditional Approaches Face mapping systems from traditional Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine are sometimes used to associate specific facial areas with internal organs. While culturally interesting, these systems are not validated diagnostic tools  in modern medicine and should not be used to draw clinical conclusions. Source: Mukti Organics In addition you can read how can you support your skin topically and learn more about skin microbiome from one of my articles earlier this year. A Whole‑Body Perspective on Skin Health Skin health is influenced by many interconnected factors: gut microbiome balance immune regulation inflammatory load hormonal signalling nutrient status stress, sleep and lifestyle habits There is no single food, supplement or intervention that works for everyone. Sustainable improvements come from consistent, personalised choices  that support overall physiological balance. Final Thoughts Healthy skin is not only about what we apply topically, but also about how well the body functions internally. Supporting digestion, gut microbial diversity and anti‑inflammatory pathways through real, nutrient‑dense food and balanced lifestyle habits can positively influence skin health over time. Small, daily choices matter — and their effects often extend far beyond the skin. If you feel that your current diet could better support your gut health, inflammation balance or skin health, you are welcome to contact me for nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Why the Food We Eat Shapes Far More Than Digestion When we think about digestion, we often imagine the stomach breaking food down into smaller pieces. In reality, digestion is a highly complex, multi‑stage process involving enzymes, hormones, transporters, organs – and trillions of microorganisms living inside our gut. Only when this system works well can the food we eat be transformed into usable building blocks: energy, structural components for cells, signalling molecules, and compounds that support immunity, brain health and metabolism. This article is the third part of my mini‑series on the human body and nutrition. In the previous posts, I explored: how the digestive system functions as a whole how nutrients are digested and absorbed in the body Here, we take the next step and focus on the gut microbiome  – still an often overlooked but very essential part of human health. What Is the Gut Microbiome? The gut microbiome refers to the community of microorganisms – mainly bacteria, but also viruses, fungi and archaea – that live primarily in the large intestine. Each person hosts a unique microbial ecosystem, shaped by genetics, early life exposure, diet, lifestyle, medication use and environment. Your microbiome is as unique to you as your fingerprint. A healthy gut microbiome is not defined by one “perfect” bacterial strain, but by diversity, balance and functionality . The microbes in the gut help us digest food components we otherwise could not process, especially dietary fibres and resistant starches. Learn more about gut microbiome here . Why Microbial Diversity Matters Microbial diversity in the gut is strongly associated with better overall health. A diverse microbiome is more resilient, adaptable and capable of performing a wide range of functions, including: breaking down complex carbohydrates and fibres producing short‑chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, acetate and propionate supporting gut barrier integrity training and regulating the immune system influencing inflammation levels in the body interacting with hormones and neurotransmitters via the gut–brain axis Low microbial diversity has been linked to digestive disorders, metabolic issues, chronic inflammation , allergies and autoimmune conditions (such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis etc). The Gut Microbiome and the Immune System Around 70% of the immune system is located in and around the gut. The microbiome plays a key role in educating immune cells to distinguish between harmless substances (like food proteins) and real threats (such as pathogens). When the gut ecosystem is imbalanced, immune regulation may suffer. This can contribute to increased susceptibility to infections, food sensitivities, allergies and inflammatory conditions. Gut Microbiome and Heart Health The gut microbiome plays an important role in cardiovascular health. Certain gut bacteria help regulate cholesterol metabolism, influence blood pressure and reduce chronic low-grade inflammation – all key factors in heart disease risk. An imbalanced microbiome may produce metabolites such as TMAO (trimethylamine N-oxide), which has been linked to a higher risk of atherosclerosis, while a diverse, fibre-rich microbiome supports the production of short-chain fatty acids that help protect blood vessels and support healthy lipid metabolism. 👉 Learn more how you can support your heart health here . Gut Microbiome and Brain Health The gut and brain are in constant two-way communication through the gut–brain axis. Gut microbes influence brain health by producing neurotransmitter precursors, regulating inflammation, and interacting with the nervous and immune systems. A healthy and diverse microbiome is associated with better mood regulation, stress resilience and cognitive function, while imbalances in gut bacteria have been linked to anxiety, depression, neuro-inflammation and even neurodegenerative conditions, like dementia. 👉 Learn how you can boost your brain health here . 👉 Learn more here about dementia and what can you do today to reduce the risks of developing it in the future. Gut Health, Weight Regulation and Metabolism Research shows that the gut microbiome influences how efficiently we extract energy from food, how we regulate appetite and how we respond to insulin. Interestingly, studies have found that people with overweight or obesity often harbour a higher abundance of bacterial genes involved in carbohydrate breakdown. After the digestive enzymes in the stomach and small intestine have done most of their work, the remaining food mass moves into the large intestine. Here, gut bacteria use leftover carbohydrates, proteins and fats as substrates for their own metabolism. During this process, they produce various compounds that can pass through the intestinal wall and enter the human bloodstream. Many of these bacterial metabolites are similar to those produced during human carbohydrate digestion. In practical terms, this means that certain gut bacteria are able to extract additional energy from carbohydrates that the human body itself cannot digest. As a result, the total amount of energy obtained from food may be higher due to bacterial activity. Excessive energy intake and an imbalanced diet are likely to promote the growth of bacterial populations that are more efficient at harvesting energy. It is important to emphasise that body weight regulation is complex and multifactorial. The gut microbiome does not act in isolation, but it clearly interacts with diet quality, meal composition, physical activity, sleep and stress to influence long-term metabolic health. Gut microbiome and skin health Skin health is closely connected to gut health via the gut–skin axis. The gut microbiome influences immune responses, inflammation and nutrient availability, all of which affect the skin. Dysbiosis in the gut has been associated with skin conditions such as acne, eczema, psoriasis and rosacea. Supporting gut microbial balance through diverse, nutrient-rich foods may help reduce systemic inflammation and support clearer, more resilient skin. Probiotics, Prebiotics and Food First Probiotics are live microorganisms that may confer health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. Prebiotics, on the other hand, are fibres and compounds that feed beneficial bacteria already present in the gut . While probiotic supplements can be useful and needed in specific situations and gut conditions, they are not a substitute for a varied, nutrient‑dense diet. A food‑first approach remains the most reliable way to support microbial diversity. Key microbiome‑supportive foods include: vegetables of different colours (think of rainbow of colours in your weekly menu) berries and fruits (different types, different colour) legumes (beans, lentils) whole grains nuts and seeds herbs and spices fermented foods such as kefir, yoghurt, sauerkraut and kimchi 👉 Learn more about probiotics and fermented foods here. 👉 Learn more about prebiotic foods here. Why Food Quality Matters Digestion and absorption can only work optimally when the body is given real, nutrient‑dense food. Highly processed products often lack fibre, contain refined carbohydrates, additives and emulsifiers, and provide little support for gut health. When choosing what to eat, it is worth pausing and asking: Is this real food that provides my body with essential nutrients and building blocks? Or is it a highly processed, food‑like product with limited nutritional value? Small, consistent choices made daily have a profound impact on digestive function, microbial balance and long‑term health. Final Thoughts A well‑functioning digestive system is not just about avoiding discomfort. It is a foundation for energy production, immune defence, mental wellbeing and metabolic health. By supporting digestion and nourishing the gut microbiome with diverse, minimally processed foods, we support the body’s ability to thrive. Understanding how complex and interconnected this system is can help us make more informed, mindful choices – one meal at a time. If you feel that your current diet needs a review to understand what can be improved, so it's more balanced and supporting gut health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com . Additional reading from scientific research: A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins The gut microbiome and eating behavior outcomes: A systematic review Impact of Gut Microbiome Interventions on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Metabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Enzymes, hormones and the remarkably coordinated journey of food This article continues my mini‑series focused on the body, the digestive system, and the processes that influence appetite  — with a particular emphasis on how nutrients are digested and absorbed in the human body. In the previous post, I focused on the digestive system as a whole  — how its different parts are involved in digestion, how long food typically spends in each section of the digestive tract, and why factors such as proper chewing  play an important role in supporting digestive efficiency and overall health. If you’d like to revisit that foundational overview, you can read it here: 👉 https://www.katrinpeo.com/post/the-digestive-system-a-remarkably-intelligent-system-supporting-our-health-every-day In this article, we take a step back and look at the bigger picture : how the digestive system works as a coordinated whole, how enzymes and hormones guide digestion, and how macronutrients and micronutrients are ultimately broken down and absorbed to support health and homeostasis. Digestion as a foundation of health Digestion is the first critical step in maintaining homeostasis  — the stable internal environment that allows our cells, tissues and organs to function optimally. Its ultimate goal is to provide cells with the building blocks and energy they need for survival, growth and repair. Each section of the digestive tract has a highly specialised role. When digestion proceeds smoothly, nutrients are efficiently broken down, absorbed and utilised. When something goes wrong, the consequences can ripple throughout the body. Disturbances in digestion and absorption may lead to: maldigestion (insufficient breakdown of food) malabsorption (insufficient uptake of nutrients from food) motility disorders (diarrhoea, constipation, nausea, vomiting) heartburn and reflux Long‑term imbalanced eating patterns are one of the key contributors to digestive dysfunction — highlighting why organism‑centred, balanced nutrition is essential for both digestive and overall health. The journey of food through the digestive tract Mouth The mouth is the starting point of digestion. It performs: mechanical breakdown  (chewing) moistening and lubrication  with saliva initial carbohydrate digestion  via salivary amylase With thorough chewing, up to 50% of starch digestion  can already begin in the mouth. Stomach The stomach provides an acidic environment  that: denatures proteins activates pepsin from its inactive precursor pepsinogen initiates protein digestion destroys many ingested microorganisms Only a small portion (10–18%) of proteins are broken down here, but this step is crucial for efficient digestion downstream. Small intestine The small intestine is the central hub of digestion and absorption . Final digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occurs here Most nutrients are absorbed into blood or lymph Digestive juices from the pancreas, liver and intestinal lining are added The small intestine is divided functionally into: duodenum  – intensive digestion and early absorption jejunum  – main site of nutrient absorption ileum  – absorption of vitamin B12 and bile acids Large intestine In the large intestine: water and electrolytes are absorbed gut microbiota ferment undigested carbohydrates short‑chain fatty acids and bacterial metabolites are produced Digestive enzymes – breaking food down into absorbable units Digestion relies on a finely tuned cascade of enzymes , each specific to certain substrates and locations in the digestive tract. Carbohydrate‑digesting enzymes Amylase  (saliva, pancreas) – breaks starch into maltose Maltase, sucrase, lactase  (intestinal brush border) – convert disaccharides into monosaccharides Carbohydrates are ultimately absorbed as glucose, fructose and galactose . Protein‑digesting enzymes Pepsin  (stomach) – initiates protein digestion Trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase  (pancreas) – further cleave peptides Aminopeptidases  (intestinal brush border) – release free amino acids Proteins are absorbed mainly as free amino acids . Fat‑digesting enzymes Pancreatic lipase  (with colipase) Phospholipases  and cholesterol esterase Fats must first be emulsified by bile acids  to allow enzyme access. The final digestion products include fatty acids, monoglycerides and glycerol. Hormonal regulation of digestion Digestion is not controlled by enzymes alone. It is orchestrated by a sophisticated hormonal signalling network , ensuring that digestion proceeds at the right time, in the right place, and at the right speed. Key gastrointestinal hormones Gastrin Produced mainly in the stomach, gastrin: stimulates hydrochloric acid secretion increases pepsin release promotes gastric motility Its release is triggered by protein intake and stomach stretching. Cholecystokinin (CCK‑8) Secreted by the duodenum and small intestine in response to fats and amino acids, CCK: stimulates gallbladder contraction and bile release activates pancreatic enzyme secretion slows gastric emptying Secretin Released when acidic chyme enters the duodenum, secretin: stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas neutralises gastric acid inhibits gastric acid production Glucagon Produced in the pancreas, glucagon: raises blood glucose stimulates fat breakdown during fasting Adequate fasting intervals between meals are necessary for glucagon‑driven fat metabolism to occur. Other regulatory hormones and peptides Somatostatin  – inhibits acid, gastrin and insulin secretion Histamine  – stimulates gastric acid production Ghrelin  – regulates hunger and energy balance Leptin  – signals long-term energy availability and satiety, helps regulate appetite over time, and interacts with digestive and metabolic hormones Motilin  – stimulates intestinal motility between meals GLP‑1 and GIP  – enhance post‑meal insulin secretion and slow gastric emptying Together, these hormones ensure efficient digestion, nutrient absorption and metabolic balance. Digestion and absorption of macronutrients Carbohydrates Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth and is completed in the small intestine. Absorption occurs as monosaccharides, which enter the bloodstream and influence blood glucose and insulin regulation. Non‑digestible carbohydrates (dietary fibre) reach the colon, where they support gut microbiota and are fermented into beneficial short‑chain fatty acids. Proteins Protein digestion starts in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Most amino acids are absorbed before reaching the colon. Efficient protein digestion depends on adequate stomach acid, pancreatic enzymes and healthy intestinal lining. Fats Fat digestion is the most complex process, requiring: bile acids for emulsification pancreatic enzymes for hydrolysis micelle and chylomicron formation for absorption and transport Disruptions in bile production or pancreatic function can severely impair fat absorption and lead to deficiencies in fat‑soluble vitamins. Micronutrient digestion and absorption Micronutrients — vitamins and minerals — rely on many of the same digestive processes as macronutrients. Their absorption is influenced by: stomach acidity bile acids intestinal health gut microbiota interactions with other nutrients and medications Because this topic is extensive, I have covered it in detail in a separate article and downloadable one‑page guides. 📘 You can explore these resources here: 👉 Resources page  (downloadable vitamin & mineral guides) When digestion doesn’t work optimally Digestive‑related nutrient deficiencies may arise due to: low stomach acid   (impaired protein digestion, reduced mineral absorption) bile or pancreatic enzyme insufficiency   (fat malabsorption, bloating, digestive discomfort) intestinal inflammation or resection   (reduced absorptive surface, increased nutrient losses) gut microbiota disruption   (e.g. antibiotics, altered fermentation, reduced short-chain fatty acid production) long-term medication use   (e.g. stomach acid suppressants (proton-pump inhibitors, metformin, NSAIDs) Supporting digestion through balanced nutrition, adequate meal timing, and digestive health awareness is therefore foundational to long‑term wellbeing. Final thoughts Digestion is not a passive process — it is a highly intelligent, responsive and adaptive system . Enzymes, hormones, organs and microbes work together seamlessly to transform food into life‑sustaining molecules. Understanding how this system works empowers us to make nutrition choices that truly support our bodies — not just on paper, but at the cellular level. If you’d like to continue exploring nutrient absorption in more detail, I warmly recommend revisiting the previous article and downloading the vitamin and mineral guides from the Resources page. If digestive symptoms, appetite changes, or ongoing nutrient concerns feel familiar, personalised nutrition support can make a meaningful difference. Digestion, absorption and appetite regulation are highly individual processes, influenced by lifestyle, health history and physiology. If you’d like guidance tailored specifically to your body and needs, you’re welcome to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Mini-series: The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite I am currently attending a month-long training programme titled “The Body, the Digestive System and Processes Influencing Appetite” , which has provided me with deeper and more nuanced insights into how the human digestive system works. Because I find this knowledge both fascinating and highly practical, I wanted to share parts of it with you in a way that is easy to understand and applicable to everyday life. As the topic is extensive, I will be sharing it through a series of blog posts . This first article  focuses on the physiology of the human digestive system — what happens in the different parts of the digestive tract, how long digestion takes at each stage, and why supporting digestion through our daily habits is so important. An important takeaway is that every part of the digestive system can be either supported or overburdened by our eating behaviour, food choices and eating rhythm . The course is taught by Laine Parts , one of my favourite lecturers from my nutrition counselling studies at the Public Health Academy. She is a lecturer at the Tallinn Health Care College, a senior analytical chemist at the Estonian Environmental Research Centre, and a certified nutrition counsellor and nutrition therapist. With a strong background in chemistry and material sciences, she also teaches biochemistry, toxicology and nutrition-related subjects to future healthcare professionals. Her multidisciplinary, science-based background gives the training a very solid foundation. The deeper one delves into the functioning of the digestive system, the more respect and awe one develops for the human body. What our body does for us every single day — mostly unnoticed — is truly remarkable. What is digestion? Digestion is the process by which large food molecules are broken down by digestive enzymes into smaller building blocks (monomers) that can be absorbed through the intestinal lining into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The ultimate goal of digestion is nutrient absorption , allowing the body to use nutrients: to produce energy as building material for cells to support metabolic processes The more balanced, diverse and individualised  our diet is, the more efficient digestion becomes. Equally important is how  we eat — in a calm environment, without rushing or excessive stress. The digestive tract – 7 to 9 metres of coordinated work The total length of the human digestive tract is approximately 7–9 metres , consisting of: the mouth pharynx oesophagus stomach small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) large intestine Each section has a specific and irreplaceable role, and digestion functions optimally only when the entire system works in harmony. Digestion begins in the mouth The mouth is the most important mechanical stage of digestion . Food is broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva.The better food is chewed, the easier it is for digestive enzymes to access it later in the digestion process. About 1.2 litres of saliva  are produced daily. Saliva: helps reduce the entry of harmful bacteria with food initiates carbohydrate digestion The Oesophagus – an Often Overlooked Part of the Digestive Tract The oesophagus is a muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. Its role is to transport swallowed food to the stomach through coordinated muscular contractions. Food moves through the oesophagus regardless of body position, but its function is strongly influenced by eating speed, stress levels, and body posture after meals. Food typically remains in the oesophagus for a few seconds up to around 10 seconds . At the lower end of the oesophagus is a sphincter muscle that prevents stomach acid from flowing back into the oesophagus. Eating too quickly, swallowing large bites, overeating, or lying down immediately after meals can increase the risk of heartburn, acid reflux and digestive discomfort. 👉 To support oesophageal function: eat slowly and chew food thoroughly (20-30 times) avoid very large bites remain upright for at least 20–30 minutes  after eating The stomach – a chemical and mechanical processing unit An adult stomach typically holds 1.5–3 litres , yet when empty it is small and folded. The stomach: mixes and grinds food through muscular contractions creates an acidic environment initiates protein digestion Food remains in the stomach for approximately 2–6 hours , depending on its composition. Protein and fat rich food remains in the stomach longer, carbohydrate and liquid based food shorter time. The liver and pancreas – hidden heroes of digestion The liver , the body’s largest gland, acts as a biochemical laboratory: producing bile acids for fat digestion processing and storing nutrients from food supporting detoxification 👉Learn more about the many functions of liver here and how can you support it with your food and lifestyle choices: https://www.katrinpeo.com/post/your-liver-why-and-how-to-take-care-of-it . The pancreas  produces: digestive enzymes (amylases, lipases, proteases) hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar and metabolism (these hormones work in opposition to maintain metabolic balance (homeostasis) . The small and large intestine – absorption and the microbiome Most nutrient digestion and absorption occur in the small intestine , where food moves through over 3–6 hours . Its surface area reaches up to 300 m² , making it highly efficient in absorbing nutrients. Food reaches the large intestine  approximately 6–8 hours after eating  and may remain there for 2–3 days . Here: water and minerals are absorbed billions of microorganisms process remaining material waste is formed Why does this matter? Overall, the complete digestive process — from the first bite to waste elimination — can take 24 to 72 hours . Digestion is therefore a highly energy-demanding process . Supporting digestion and digestive organs is essential for maintaining: energy levels immune function hormonal balance mood body weight For this reason, allowing the body rest from eating , especially at night, is crucial. During longer eating breaks, the body can redirect energy toward: cleansing processes recovery cellular regeneration 👉 You can read more about intermittent fasting, how to practise it and its health benefits here: https://et.katrinpeo.com/post/vahelduv-paastumine-kasu-tervisele-ja-kuidas-seda-teha Coming up next in this mini-series: how nutrients are digested and absorbed the role of gut microbiota in health mechanisms behind appetite regulation the connection between nutrition and biological rhythms If you would like to improve your eating habits and support your health, but are not sure where to start, feel free to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com . During online or in-person session(s), I provide feedback on your current nutrition and lifestyle habits, based on information you share with me before our meeting. Together, we identify your goals and focus areas, and you decide what you would like to work on and improve. I support you with evidence-based information, practical guidance and realistic steps, so you can move towards your health goals in a way that fits your daily life.

It's often said that food is fuel, but the journey from the plate to energy production is a complex one. While the primary purpose of consuming food is to fuel our bodies, there's a lot more at play beneath the surface. Commonly known as vitamins and minerals, these microscopic compounds are essential for our well-being, and without them, our existence would be at risk. Photo source: Unsplash The Significance of Vitamins and Minerals Discovered over a century ago, vitamins and minerals are crucial for normal bodily functions. With almost 30 identified micronutrients, each one plays a unique role, and a deficiency in any can have severe consequences. For instance, vitamin A deficiency can lead to blindness, while low iron levels can result in anemia and related complications. The Role of Nutrients in the Body In the modern era, access to nutrient-dense foods is in most countries abundant, and fortified products further supplement our diets. However, the absorption of these nutrients is equally critical. We are not only what we eat, but what we absorb . The digestive system, from the mouth to the large intestine, plays an important role in breaking down and absorbing essential components. The Digestive Journey The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is broken down into smaller bits. As it travels through the digestive system, various enzymes and microbiomes work together to further break down nutrients. The small intestine is a major player in the absorption process, where most vitamins and minerals are absorbed. Understanding the differences between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins can help optimise absorption. In this blog post you can read in detail about the different vitamins and minerals and which foods contain them . The Small Intestine's Absorption Process The small intestine consists of three sections – the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. This is where the majority of nutrient absorption occurs, and each micronutrient requires its own unique mechanism to cross the intestinal cell lining. Water-soluble vitamins rely on fluids for transport, while fat-soluble vitamins necessitate the presence of healthy fats for absorption. The Large Intestine's Hidden Functions While historically seen as primarily responsible for removing excess water and salts, the large intestine is now recognised for its diverse functions, especially its role in hosting the gut microbiome . Gut bacteria, predominantly colonising the colon, contribute to the breakdown of leftover food remnants, transforming them into additional sources of essential nutrients. The Microbial Factor Although not mandatory for nutrient absorption, gut bacteria play supporting roles that enhance the process. A healthy gut ecosystem contributes to the integrity of the intestinal lining and can even increase the levels of essential nutrients. For instance, certain gut bacteria produce a significant portion of our daily vitamin K requirement. Reasons for Micronutrient Deficiencies There can be several reasons why you may have nutritional deficiencies. It could simply be that your diet is not diverse enough or the diet is high in sugar and processed foods. It could also be if you are under a lot of stress, have a high toxic load, have poor blood sugar balance , low stomach acid or have a leaky gut , which all can contribute to nutritional deficiencies in your body. In the intricate dance of digestion and nutrient absorption, understanding your body's unique needs is paramount. Factors like lifestyle, diet, and the health of your various microbiomes all contribute to the efficiency of this essential process. Recognising the gaps in your diet and adopting strategies to improve nutrient absorption is the first step toward achieving optimal health. If you want to improve your diet and are not sure where to start, then don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

The healthcare landscape offers various approaches to patient care, with functional medicine and conventional medicine being two prominent models. Each has its unique methodologies, strengths, and considerations. Understanding these can aid individuals in making informed decisions about their health.​ Conventional Medicine Conventional medicine, often termed Western or allopathic medicine, is the predominant healthcare system in many parts of the world. It focuses on diagnosing and treating diseases primarily through pharmaceuticals, surgeries, and other interventions. This approach is particularly effective in acute and emergency situations, such as infections, trauma, or life-threatening conditions, where immediate intervention is crucial. Specialisation is a hallmark, with practitioners concentrating on specific organ systems or diseases, allowing for targeted expertise. However, this model may sometimes emphasise symptom management over addressing underlying causes, potentially leading to prolonged medication use without resolving root issues. Additionally, time constraints in patient consultations can limit comprehensive lifestyle or preventive discussions. Functional Medicine Functional medicine adopts a holistic, patient-centred approach, aiming to identify and address the root causes of diseases. It considers the intricate interactions among genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors influencing health. Practitioners often spend extended time with patients, delving into histories and personal circumstances to tailor individualised treatment plans. These plans may encompass dietary modifications, lifestyle changes, stress management, and, when appropriate, conventional treatments. This approach is particularly beneficial for chronic conditions where multifaceted factors contribute to health issues. However, functional medicine may require significant patient commitment, as lifestyle and dietary changes can be time-consuming to implement and require focus and dedication. Additionally, some treatments may not be covered by insurance, leading to out-of-pocket expenses. ​ You can find a functional medicine practitioner near you here . Integrative Medicine Recognising the strengths of both models, an integrative medicine approach combines conventional and functional medicine practices. This synergy aims to provide comprehensive care, utilising the immediate efficacy of conventional treatments alongside the preventive and personalised strategies of functional medicine. For instance, a patient might use medication to manage acute symptoms while simultaneously adopting lifestyle changes to address underlying causes. Such collaboration can enhance patient outcomes by leveraging the benefits of both approaches. ​ Conclusion Both functional and conventional medicine offer valuable perspectives in healthcare. Conventional medicine excels in acute care and specialised interventions, while functional medicine provides a comprehensive approach to chronic disease management and prevention. By understanding and integrating these models, individuals can pursue a balanced and personalised healthcare strategy that addresses both immediate needs and long-term wellness.

Many of us start a new year with the same intention: to feel better in our bodies . And very often, that intention turns into a plan to “eat better.” But eating better in 2026 doesn’t need another strict diet, calorie counting app, or short-term detox. Science clearly shows that small, consistent changes to food quality, variety, and timing can create powerful, long-lasting improvements in health . Research also shows something very encouraging: changing your diet at any point in life can add healthy years , and you don’t need months to feel the benefits. You can feel different within hours, see biological improvements within weeks, and create real protection for your long-term health. Here are the key principles that matter most – grounded in the latest research and years of practical experience. 1. Focus on Food Quality, Not Calories Many people start the year by cutting calories in pursuit of rapid weight loss. While this may work short-term, it rarely works long-term. Most people regain the weight – often more – because the body adapts by increasing hunger and slowing metabolism. What consistently works better is focusing on food quality : Fibre-rich foods Diverse plants Healthy fats High-quality protein You can eat the same number of calories  from very different foods and get completely different health outcomes. A nutrient-dense meal supports stable blood sugar, fullness, gut health, and energy – without counting a single calorie. 👉 If you want to read more on eating for satiety, see: How to Eat So You Feel Satisfied 2. Balance Every Meal (Especially Breakfast) You can feel the effects of food within hours . A highly refined breakfast – white toast, pastries, sweet cereals, fruit juices – often leads to blood sugar dips, low energy, brain fog, and hunger shortly after eating. A balanced breakfast makes a dramatic difference: Protein (e.g. unflavoured Greek yoghurt, kefir, eggs) Fibre (berries, seeds, whole grains) Healthy fats (nuts, seeds) This kind of meal supports stable blood sugar, better focus, and sustained energy – helping you avoid the energy rollercoaster for the rest of the day. 👉 For more examples of a balanced breakfast, see: How changing what you eat for breakfast can improve your health . 3. Use the Plate Rule as a Simple Guide A very practical tool for everyday meals is the plate rule : ½ plate : colourful vegetables and fruits ¼ plate : protein (beans, lentils, tofu, fish, eggs, occasionally meat) ¼ plate : whole grains (quinoa, buckwheat, wholegrain rice, millet) or starchy vegetables (potatoes, sweet potatoes) This automatically increases fibre, micronutrients, and meal balance – without needing perfection. 👉 You can find examples of foods you can add to your plate here: Tips for Better Holiday Nutrition: How to Enjoy the Season Without Sacrificing Your Health 4. Aim for 30 Different Plants Per Week One of the most important discoveries in nutrition over the past decade is the role of gut microbiome diversity . Plant foods include: Vegetables and fruits Whole grains Legumes Nuts and seeds Herbs and spices It’s not about eating large amounts of one plant food– it’s about variety . Different gut microbes thrive on different fibres and polyphenols. The more diverse your plant food intake, the more diverse and resilient your gut microbiome becomes – supporting immunity, metabolism, mental health, and inflammation control. Think of it as feeding an ecosystem: more variety = more resilience . 👉 Read more about gut supporting foods: Are You Getting Enough Fibre From Your Food? Polyphenols: What Are They and Their Health Benefits Prebiotics : What Are They and How Can You Get Them From Food? 5. Reduce High-Risk Processed Foods Not all processed foods are unhealthy – freezing, fermenting, and cooking are also forms of processing. The problem lies with high-risk ultra-processed foods . These foods: Are easy to eat quickly Disrupt fullness signals Contain emulsifiers, flavourings, artificial sweeteners and additives Often combine sugar, fat, and refined starch in unnatural ways Studies consistently show that ultra-processed foods are linked to increased risk of: Cardiovascular disease Metabolic disorders Mental health issues Overeating (by ~25%) Simple swaps that make a big difference: Fruit yoghurt → plain unflavoured yoghurt + fruit or berries Low-fat products → natural full-fat versions White bread → wholegrain and seeded breads with a short ingredient list and high fibre Milk chocolate → dark chocolate (70% and higher cacao and with few ingredients, ideally not more than 3) Most breakfast cereals → oats, eggs, yoghurt, kefir, or leftovers from dinner Focus first on reviewing and upgrading the quality (nutrition value) of the foods you eat every day  – small changes here compound over time. 👉 Read more about ultra-processed foods here: Ultra-Processed Foods: How Your Grocery Cart May Impact Your Health 6. Eat the Rainbow (and Don’t Fear Bitterness) Bright colours in plant foods come from polyphenols  – natural defence compounds that act as fuel for your gut microbes. Purple, red, orange, and dark green vegetables contain far more polyphenols than pale or beige foods Bitterness (olive oil, broccoli, dark chocolate, coffee) often signals high polyphenol content in the food Choose: Brightly coloured vegetables Dark leafy greens Berries Herbs and spices Colour and bitterness are powerful clues to nutritional value. 7. Choose Protein for Quality, Not Hype Protein labels are everywhere, and many people worry they’re not getting enough. In reality, most people can meet their needs with a balanced diet. What matters is protein quality and source : Diverse plant proteins (legumes, grains, nuts, seeds) Fermented dairy (kefir, Greek yoghurt) Eggs Fish, especially oily fish (salmon, mackerel, anchovies, sardines, herring) Lean meat Processed red meat (sausages, hams, viennas etc) is associated with higher risk of chronic disease. Plant-based protein diversity provides all essential amino acids – plus fibre, healthy fats, and polyphenols. 👉 Read more about protein, how much we need it from here: The Role of Protein in Our Bodies: Why Balance Is Key 8. Include Fermented Foods Daily Fermented foods are foods transformed by microbes into something more beneficial. Examples: Kefir and yoghurt Sauerkraut and kimchi Kombucha, water kefir, kvass Miso, tempeh Research shows fermented foods can reduce inflammation quickly  and support immune and gut health. Variety matters – different ferments contain different microbes. Aim for 2–3 different fermented foods per day , choosing products that are live and minimally processed. 👉 Read more about fermented foods here: Fermented foods: Natural Way to Support Gut Health 9. Try a Consistent Eating Window Time-restricted eating focuses on when  you eat, not just what you eat. A practical goal: Eating window: 10–12 hours (where you consume your meals for example between 7am and 7pm) Overnight fast: 12–14 hours An earlier eating window (e.g. 8:00–18:00) appears more beneficial than eating late into the evening. Many people naturally reduce calorie intake and improve blood sugar, cholesterol, and energy without dieting. It doesn’t need to be perfect – 5 days of time-restricted eating a week is enough  to see benefits. 👉 Read more about intermittent fasting here: Intermittent fasting - the health benefits and how to go about it 10. Eat Mindfully and Break Automatic Habits Much of how we eat is habitual. Snacking, overeating, and mindless eating often happen without hunger. Mindful eating means: Pausing before you eat (smell the food, admire how it looks on the plate, be grateful for the meal, take three deep belly breaths to activate the parasympathetic nervous system that supports the digestion of the food) Eating without distraction when possible and slowing down when eating (putting the utensils down between the bites and chewing the food well) Noticing how food affects your energy, mood, and digestion Mindfulness is the antidote to highly processed foods designed to be eaten quickly and unconsciously. Small awareness shifts can lead to powerful habit changes. 👉 You can get more tips from these articles: What is your relationship with food? Digestive health- you are not only what you eat but what you digest and absorb Final Thought: Small Actions Add Up Diet is one of the most powerful tools we have for improving health. You don’t need perfection – you need consistency . Within: Hours : energy and focus can improve Weeks : cholesterol, glucose, blood pressure can change Months : long-term disease risk begins to shift Small, daily actions truly compound. 👉 For more guidance, explore my previous guidelines: Building a Healthier You in 2025 Transforming Your Health: A Month-by-Month Guide to Better Eating in 2024 If you want to improve your diet to improve your health and you don't know where to start, have tried multiple diets, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling, so you can get to a healthy balanced nutrition that works with your lifestyle. Contact me here: info@katrinpeo.com . Sources: ZOE: 8 Ways to Eat Better in 2026 Gut micro-organisms associated with health, nutrition and dietary interventions – Nature (2025) Gut microbiome signatures of vegan, vegetarian and omnivore diets – Nature (2024)