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We often judge food by its nutrition label—but our bodies don't. When choosing what to eat, many of us look at the nutrition label first. How many calories does it contain? How much protein, fat or carbohydrate? How much sugar? While these numbers are useful, they don't tell the whole story. Our bodies don't simply "read" nutrition labels. Instead, they respond to something scientists call the food matrix—the physical structure of food and the way nutrients are packaged together within it. The food matrix influences how quickly food is digested, how full we feel afterwards, how much our blood sugar rises, how many nutrients we absorb and even how much energy our bodies extract from the food. This helps explain why two foods with very similar nutrition labels can affect our bodies quite differently. What is the food matrix? The food matrix refers to the natural structure of a food and the way its nutrients are organised within plant or animal tissues. Rather than existing as isolated nutrients, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals are enclosed within cells and surrounded by fibres, water, proteins and other naturally occurring compounds. When we eat, our digestive system must first break down this structure before nutrients become available for absorption. The more intact a food remains, the more work our digestive system needs to do. When foods are chopped, blended, ground or refined, parts of this natural structure are broken down, making nutrients easier—and often faster—to access. This is one reason why the structure of food matters just as much as its nutrient content. Calories don't always tell the whole story Many people assume that if a food label states 200 calories, their body absorbs exactly 200 calories. In reality, the amount of energy we obtain from food—known as metabolisable energy—can vary depending on the food's structure. Chewing, digestion, the gut microbiome and the degree of food processing all influence how much energy is ultimately available to our bodies. For example, some nutrients remain trapped within intact plant cell walls and pass through the digestive system without being fully absorbed. When these cell walls are broken down through grinding or blending, more nutrients become accessible. In other words, two foods containing the same number of calories on paper may not provide exactly the same amount of usable energy to the body. Whole fruit, smoothies and fruit juice: the same fruit, different effects A whole apple, an apple smoothie and apple juice may all originate from the same fruit, but their effects on the body differ considerably. When you eat a whole apple, you need to chew it. The fruit's cell walls remain largely intact, and its fibre slows digestion and the release of glucose into the bloodstream. This results in a more gradual rise in blood sugar and helps you feel fuller for longer. When the apple is blended into a smoothie, many of the plant cells are broken open. Although the fibre is still present, nutrients become more readily available, allowing faster digestion compared with eating the fruit whole. This doesn't mean smoothies are unhealthy. Smoothies can be a nutritious option, particularly when they include vegetables (such as spinach, kale), protein sources such as Greek yoghurt or kefir, and healthy fats from nuts or seeds. However, from a metabolic perspective, they are not identical to eating whole fruit. Juicing goes one step further. Most of the fibre is removed, leaving the naturally occurring sugars to be absorbed much more rapidly. This typically causes a quicker rise in blood sugar and provides less satiety than eating whole fruit. Whole nuts versus nut butter Nuts provide one of the best examples of how the food matrix affects calorie absorption. Although nuts are rich in healthy unsaturated fats, our bodies do not absorb all of the fat they contain. This is because much of the fat remains enclosed within intact plant cells, and chewing alone cannot completely break down these cell walls. As a result, some of the fat passes through the digestive tract without being absorbed. When nuts are ground into nut butter, however, the cell walls are largely destroyed. This makes the fat much more accessible during digestion, allowing the body to absorb more of the available energy. This doesn't mean nut butter should be avoided. Both whole nuts and nut butters are nutritious foods rich in healthy fats, fibre, vitamins and minerals. The important point is that the same food can behave differently depending on its physical structure. Steel-cut oats, rolled oats and instant oats Oats are another excellent example of how food processing changes the food matrix. Steel-cut oats are simply oat groats cut into smaller pieces while retaining much of their original structure. Because they require more chewing and take longer to digest, they generally produce a slower rise in blood sugar. Rolled oats have been steamed and flattened, making them quicker to cook and easier to digest. Instant oats undergo even more processing. Their smaller particle size allows digestive enzymes to access the starch more rapidly, often leading to a higher and faster blood sugar response. All forms of oats remain nutritious and provide valuable fibre, particularly beta-glucan. However, the more intact the oat, the slower its digestion tends to be. And of course it also depends what you add to your oats when you cook them (jam or honey; or seeds, mushrooms and nutritional yeast for example), how the meal will impact your blood sugar. Whole grains versus flour The same principle applies to grains. Eating intact grains such as barley, rye berries or wheat berries requires more chewing and digestion than eating foods made from the flour of the same grains. Grinding grains into flour breaks apart much of their natural structure, allowing digestive enzymes easier access to the starch. Even wholemeal flour behaves differently from intact whole grains because the food matrix has already been disrupted. The dairy matrix: why nutrients don't always act alone The food matrix doesn't only apply to plant foods. Research has shown that foods containing similar amounts of saturated fat can affect health differently depending on their structure. For example, cheese and butter both contain saturated fat, yet cheese generally has a smaller effect on raising LDL ("bad") cholesterol than butter. Scientists believe this is partly due to the dairy matrix—the complex interaction between calcium, protein, fat globules and fermentation within cheese—which influences how fat is digested and absorbed. This reminds us that focusing on a single nutrient in isolation doesn't always reflect how food behaves in the body. More chewing may benefit your metabolism Whole foods generally require more chewing than highly processed foods. Chewing is the first stage of digestion and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and hormones involved in appetite regulation. More intact foods also require slightly more energy to digest, absorb and metabolise—a process known as the thermic effect of food (TEF). Although the difference in calorie expenditure is relatively modest, it adds to the many reasons why minimally processed foods tend to promote greater fullness than foods requiring little chewing. Your gut microbes also benefit from an intact food matrix If you have been reading my blog over the years, you know that not all carbohydrates are digested in the small intestine. When plant cell walls remain intact, some fibre and resistant starch reach the large intestine, where they are fermented by beneficial gut bacteria. This fermentation produces short-chain fatty acids, including butyrate, which help maintain the gut lining, support immune function and may reduce inflammation. Highly processed foods often provide fewer opportunities for this beneficial fermentation because much of the natural food structure has already been broken down. Processing isn't always bad It's important not to think of food processing as simply "good" or "bad." Many minimally processed foods remain highly nutritious and make healthy eating easier. These include: Frozen vegetables and fruit Canned beans and lentils (preferably low in salt or rinsed before use) Plain yoghurt and kefir Pasteurised milk, if tolerated Steel-cut or rolled oats Frozen berries Extra virgin olive oil Frozen fish In many cases, processing improves food safety, extends shelf life, reduces food waste and makes nutritious foods more accessible. The key question isn't whether a food has been processed—it is how much the natural food matrix has been altered and whether beneficial nutrients have been removed or undesirable ingredients added. When the food matrix is almost completely lost At the other end of the spectrum are many ultra-processed foods, where the original food matrix has been largely broken down and transformed into an entirely new product. Instead of whole foods, these products are typically made from refined ingredients such as starches, flours, sugars, vegetable oils and isolated proteins, combined with flavourings, colourings, emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners and other additives to create a product with a long shelf life and a consistent taste and texture. Examples include sugary breakfast cereals, confectionery, crisps, soft drinks, many packaged cakes and biscuits, sweetened breakfast bars, instant noodles, chicken nuggets, flavoured snack foods and many fast-food items. These foods are often soft, require little chewing and are digested quickly, making them easy to eat rapidly and in large amounts before our body's natural fullness signals have time to respond. Many are carefully formulated to combine fat, refined carbohydrates, sugar and salt in ways that make them highly palatable and encourage people to keep eating. This doesn't mean they need to be completely avoided, but diets dominated by ultra-processed foods have consistently been associated with a higher risk of weight gain and several chronic diseases. In contrast, meals based primarily on whole or minimally processed foods generally require more chewing, promote greater satiety and better preserve the natural food matrix that supports healthy digestion and metabolism. The concern isn't that foods have been processed—it is when processing fundamentally changes the food's natural structure and how our bodies respond to it. When softer or liquid foods are the better choice Although whole foods offer many advantages, there are situations where softer or liquid foods are medically necessary or more appropriate. Examples include: Recovery after jaw or gastrointestinal surgery Early stages following bariatric surgery Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) Stroke rehabilitation Head and neck cancers Severe mouth ulcers or dental problems Older adults with significant chewing difficulties Certain digestive conditions during acute flare-ups, when advised by a healthcare professional In these situations, modifying food texture helps ensure adequate nutrition and supports recovery. For individuals without these medical needs, however, choosing foods that retain much of their natural structure is generally associated with greater satiety, slower digestion and better overall metabolic health. Practical ways to preserve the food matrix You don't need to avoid processed foods entirely. Instead, aim to include more foods that retain much of their natural structure. Some simple ways to do this include: Choose whole fruit majority of the time and leave fruit juice for occasional consumption if desired. Enjoy smoothies as a meal or snack rather than replacing all whole fruit with smoothies. Make sure your smoothies contain a source of protein, fibre and healthy fats to make them more satiating. Include more whole nuts alongside nut butters. Choose steel-cut or rolled oats more often than instant oats. Eat intact whole grains such as barley, rye berries or quinoa regularly. Include beans, lentils and vegetables in most meals. Focus on your overall dietary pattern rather than individual nutrients or calorie counts. Key take-home message Calories are important, but they don't tell the whole story. The way food is structured influences how quickly it is digested, how full we feel, how our blood sugar responds, how many nutrients become available and even how much energy our bodies ultimately absorb. Rather than focusing solely on calories or individual nutrients, consider the food as a whole. Choosing foods that retain much of their natural structure—such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, intact whole grains, nuts and seeds—supports a slower, more gradual release of nutrients and provides many benefits for metabolic and long-term health. The food matrix reminds us that food is far more than the sum of its nutrients. Sometimes, how food is packaged by nature is just as important as what it contains. References Fardet A. Minimally Processed Foods Are More Satiating and Less Hyperglycemic Than Ultra-Processed Foods: A Preliminary Study with 98 Ready-to-Eat Foods. Food & Function. 2016. Fardet A, Rock E. Perspective: Reductionist Nutrition Research Has Meaningfully Nourished the Food Matrix Concept. Advances in Nutrition. 2022. Novotny JA, Gebauer SK, Baer DJ. Discrepancy Between the Atwater Factor Predicted and Empirically Measured Energy Values of Almonds. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2012. Baer DJ, Gebauer SK, Novotny JA. Walnuts Consumed by Healthy Adults Provide Less Available Energy Than Predicted by the Atwater Factors. Journal of Nutrition. 2016. The Lancet: Ultra-Processed Foods and Human Health Science communication BBC Food. The Food Matrix: Why Food Structure Matters. Nutrition scientist: This is why you're confused about ultra processed food | Prof. Sarah Berry Mayo Clinic Press. Unlocking the Food Matrix. Max Lugavere Podcast #311. Beyond Calories: How the Food Matrix Influences Weight Gain and Health (interview with professor Sarah Berry).

A lighter chocolate cake made with Greek yoghurt or skyr yoghurt. There’s something special about making a celebration cake yourself — especially when it turns out to be eye-pleasing, tasty and surprisingly simple. Recently, I almost bought a cake that had received the title “Best Confectionery Product in Estonia 2026.” It looked stunning. But when I turned the package around and started reading the ingredient list, I sighed and placed it back on the shelf. Not because store-bought cakes are “bad,” and not because I want to create fear around food. Life is busy and convenience has its place. But that moment reminded me how easy it actually can be to make a delicious cake at home using ingredients you recognise and feel good about serving to your family and friends. This Light Chocolate Yoghurt Cake with Seasonal Berries is exactly that kind of recipe. It’s rich and chocolatey without being heavy, made with Greek yoghurt or skyr for a lighter texture, and sweetened with honey or maple syrup instead of relying only on refined sugar. No complicated pastry-chef techniques. No endless ingredient list. Just simple ingredients transformed into something elegant enough for birthdays, summer gatherings, garden parties, or slow afternoons with coffee and friends. One of the great things about this cake is how easy it is to adapt to the season. Decorate it with raspberries, cherries, gooseberries, blackberries, strawberries, or whatever fruits and berries are at their best right now. A little cocoa dusting and a few dark chocolate curls can make it feel effortlessly special. Light Chocolate Yoghurt Cake with Seasonal Berries Serves 8 Ingredients Base 150 g crushed nuts (for example hazelnuts or cashews) or almond flour or blended wholegrain oats 2 tbsp cocoa powder 2 tbsp coconut oil or melted butter 1 tbsp honey or maple syrup Pinch of salt Filling 500 g Greek yoghurt or skyr 150 g dark chocolate (70% cacao) 2 tbsp cocoa powder 2–3 tbsp honey or maple syrup 200 ml double cream 4 gelatine sheets Instructions Mix the base ingredients together and press into the bottom of a cake tin. Place in the fridge while preparing the filling. Melt the dark chocolate and let it cool slightly. Soak the gelatine sheets according to package instructions. Warm a small amount of the double cream and dissolve the softened gelatine into it. In a bowl, combine the Greek yoghurt or skyr with cocoa powder, melted chocolate and honey or maple syrup. Whip the remaining cream and gently fold it into the chocolate mixture. Stir in the gelatine mixture. Pour the filling over the chilled base and refrigerate until fully set. Optional toppings Cocoa powder dusting Dark chocolate curls Fresh raspberries Cherries Gooseberries Blackberries Other seasonal berries or fruits Serve it cold, add your favourite summer berries, and enjoy every light chocolatey bite.

I made this salad for my son’s birthday gathering last week, where we served it alongside grilled salmon and trout, as well as grilled pork ribs. It was one of those dishes people kept coming back for — fresh, colourful, juicy, and full of summer flavours. I have loved using stone fruits like peaches, nectarines, and apricots in savoury dishes, when they are in season. Their natural sweetness works so well with creamy cheese, fresh herbs, toasted nuts, and tangy dressings. This salad was inspired by Dominique Ludvig, whose beautiful approach to seasonal cooking encouraged me to modify the recipe a little bit and create my own version. One thing I always do when making salads like this is assemble them on a large serving platter rather than tossing everything together in a bowl. Mixing delicate ingredients too much can make the salad soggy and heavy. Layering everything on a large plate keeps the textures fresh and beautiful. Why this salad is nutritious This salad is not only delicious but also packed with nutrients: Peaches are rich in vitamin C, beta-carotene, and antioxidants that support skin health and immunity. Tomatoes contain lycopene, a powerful antioxidant linked to heart health and reduced inflammation. Shallots provide beneficial plant compounds and prebiotic fibres that support gut health. Pomegranate seeds are rich in antioxidants and polyphenols that may help reduce oxidative stress. Pecan nuts contain healthy fats, fibre, and minerals that support heart health. Pumpkin seeds are an excellent source of magnesium, zinc, iron, and plant protein. Basil adds freshness while also providing antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds. Combined with creamy burrata and extra virgin olive oil, this salad is deeply satisfying while still feeling light and fresh. Peach, Burrata & Tomato Salad Serves 6 Ingredients Salad 6 ripe peaches, skin removed or left on 1 shallot, finely diced 500 g mini plum tomatoes or baby tomatoes 150 g lamb’s lettuce (lamb salad), baby spinach, or mixed salad leaves 1 large handful fresh basil, torn into smaller pieces 450 g burrata (or mozzarella) 50 g pecan nuts 25 g pumpkin seeds, toasted in a dry pan 6 tablespoons pomegranate seeds Dressing 6 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil 6 tablespoons balsamic vinegar Method Toast the pecan nuts and pumpkin seeds in a dry frying pan over medium heat for a few minutes until lightly golden and fragrant. Set aside to cool. Slice the peaches into wedges. Halve the tomatoes if using mini plum or baby tomatoes, or cut larger tomatoes into bite-sized pieces. Arrange the salad leaves on a large serving platter. Scatter over the tomatoes and peaches Tear the burrata into pieces and place across the salad. Add the basil leaves. Sprinkle over the pecan nuts, toasted pumpkin seeds, and pomegranate seeds. Sprinkle on the salad diced shallot. Drizzle with extra virgin olive oil and balsamic vinegar just before serving. Serve with grilled fish, chicken, pork, or fresh crusty sourdough bread. This salad tastes like summer on a plate — juicy peaches, creamy burrata, sweet tomatoes, crunchy seeds, and fragrant basil all coming together in the simplest and most beautiful way. Enjoy!

When most people think about sugar, they think about cakes, biscuits, chocolate, and sweets. However, one of the largest sources of sugar in modern diets often comes from something we drink. Liquid calories from sugar-sweetened beverages, alcohol and sweetened drinks are one of the most overlooked contributors to excess energy intake. Unlike solid foods, they are consumed quickly and provide little satiety, making it easier to overconsume calories without noticing. Soft drinks, energy drinks, sweetened coffees, flavoured waters, fruit juices, sports drinks, milkshakes, and many ready-to-drink beverages can contain surprisingly large amounts of sugar. Because these calories are consumed in liquid form, they may affect appetite and energy intake differently from calories eaten in whole foods. Many nutrition researchers now consider sugar-sweetened beverages to be one of the major dietary contributors to obesity and metabolic disease worldwide. Key takeaways from this article: Liquid calories are poorly compensated for in the diet Sugary drinks are a major driver of excess calorie intake Alcohol contributes both sugar and calories Diet drinks may reduce sugar intake but are not health foods Water remains the best default beverage What Names Can Added Sugar Hide Under? When reading ingredient labels, sugar may appear under many different names apart from 'sugar'. Common examples include: Sucrose (table sugar) High-fructose corn syrup Glucose syrup Fructose Fruit juice concentrates Honey Agave syrup Even when sugar comes from a natural source, once it is removed from the food's original structure and consumed in liquid form, it can have similar effects on blood sugar and calorie intake as added sugars. Why Liquid Calories Are Different One reason sugary drinks are problematic is that our bodies do not register liquid calories in the same way they register calories from solid food. A whole apple provides sugar, but it also contains fibre, water, and a structure that requires chewing. These factors contribute to fullness and help regulate appetite. A glass of apple juice may contain a similar amount of sugar as several apples, but without the fibre that slows absorption and promotes satiety. Research consistently shows that calories consumed in beverages are often poorly compensated for later in the day. In other words, people tend to drink calories without eating less food afterwards. As a result, total daily calorie intake increases. Common Sources of Liquid Sugar Many people are surprised by how much sugar some beverages contain. Examples include: Soft drinks Coca-Cola Pepsi Fanta Sprite Mountain Dew A standard 330 ml can of soft drinks often contains around 32–34 grams of added sugar, which is 8 tsp of sugar. Energy drinks Red Bull Monster Energy Rockstar A 250 ml can of Red Bull contains 27.5 g of sugar (which is about 7 teaspoons of sugar). A 500 ml can of Monster Energy contains 55 g of sugar (which is about 14 teaspoons of sugar) Sweetened ice teas Lipton Ice Tea Fuze Tea Nestea Ice Tea Arizona Iced Tea For example 500ml Fuze Tea ja Nestea Ice Tea contain 22.5g sugar (which is 5.6t tsp of sugar). Sweetened coffee beverages Flavoured lattes Frappuccinos Ready-to-drink iced coffees For example, a 220 ml Starbucks caramel ready-to-drink coffee contains 19 g of sugar (which is 4 teaspoons of sugar). An 230 ml Ice Espresso coffee drink contains 20 g of sugar (which is 5 teaspoons of sugar). Sports drinks Gatorade Powerade Isostar Sports drinks contain sugar and electrolytes and are intended for endurance sports (such as long-distance running and ultramarathons). For regular or short-duration exercise, they are not necessary and increase sugar intake in a similar way to soft drinks. Over time, the composition of sports drinks has also changed, and today they may include unnecessary ingredients such as artificial sweeteners, preservatives, and food colorings. Sweetened plant-based drinks Some oat, rice, almond and coconut beverages may contain added sugars, making label reading important. Flavoured waters Vitamin Well Aloe vera drinks Fruit-flavoured sparkling waters with added sugars Flavoured waters are often marketed as a healthy alternative to soft drinks, but many of them contain added sugars, fruit juice concentrates, or sweeteners. Even if their sugar content is lower than that of regular soft drinks, regular consumption can still increase daily intake of free sugars. Some flavoured waters also contain, among other ingredients, fructose or glucose-fructose syrup. Although both fructose and glucose are simple sugars, the body processes them differently. Glucose can be used as an energy source by cells throughout the body, whereas fructose is primarily metabolised in the liver. When fructose is consumed in large amounts from sugar-sweetened beverages and other sources of free sugars, it may contribute to fatty liver development, raise blood triglyceride levels, and negatively affect metabolic function (including insulin production). A 500 ml bottle of Vitamin Well contains 20 g of sugar (which is 5 teaspoons of sugar, including fructose). A 500 ml bottle of Aloe vera drink (Aleo) contains 39 g of sugar (which is 9 teaspoons of sugar). Fruit Juice: Healthy or Just Another Source of Sugar? Unlike soft drinks, 100% fruit juice contains vitamins, minerals, and beneficial plant compounds. However, most of the fibre naturally present in whole fruit is removed during processing. As a result, fruit juice is digested and absorbed differently from whole fruit. A glass of juice can provide the sugar from several pieces of fruit in just a few minutes, without delivering the same level of fullness. This does not mean fruit juice is unhealthy. For many people, moderate amounts can fit into a balanced diet. However, for those trying to manage body weight, blood sugar levels, or overall calorie intake, whole fruit is usually the better choice. But what about nectars and juice drinks? Beverage Type Typical Fruit Content Added Sugar Allowed? 100% Fruit Juice 100% No Nectar Typically 25–50% Often yes, read the product label for sugar quantity Juice Drink Typically 10–30% Often yes, read the product label for sugar quantity Smoothies and blended fruit drinks Froosh Naked Juice Innocent Commercial smoothies can contain the sugar equivalent of several portions of fruit while lacking the same satiety benefits as whole fruit, especially when fibre is broken down during processing. Smoothies should be treated as a meal or snack, rather than a drink. When making smoothie at home: add vegetables add nuts/seeds add protein to improve satiety and reduce blood sugar spikes. You can learn more about how to create a balanced smoothie that provides satiety from here. The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends keeping free sugar intake below 10% of daily energy intake (around 50g per day), with additional health benefits when reduced to below 5% (around 25g per day). Alcohol: The Overlooked Source of Liquid Calories and Sugar When discussing liquid sugar, alcoholic beverages are often forgotten. Yet for many adults, alcohol may be one of the largest sources of liquid calories in their diet. Alcohol provides approximately 7 calories per gram—nearly as energy-dense as fat (9 kcal/g). Alcohol provides calories with little nutritional value. Many alcoholic beverages also contain significant amounts of sugar. Alcohol: A Hidden Source of Liquid Calories and Sugar Examples include: Cocktails such as Margaritas, Piña Coladas, Mojitos and Daiquiris and Long Island Iced Teas Premixed alcoholic beverages ("alcopops")- Smirnoff Ice, Bacardi Breezer etc. For example, a 275 ml bottle of Bacardi Breezer Orange contains 22 g of sugar (which is 5 teaspoons of sugar). Hard seltzers with added sweeteners Flavoured ciders. For example, a 500 ml bottle of Somersby cider contains 40 g of sugar (which is 10 teaspoons of sugar). Sweet wines Dessert wines Liqueurs such as Baileys, Kahlúa and Amaretto A single cocktail can sometimes contain as much sugar as a soft drink. What About Beer and Wine? Beer and wine are not usually considered high-sugar drinks in the same way as soft drinks or cocktails. However, they still contribute a significant number of calories, both from alcohol itself and, in some cases, from residual sugars. Most beers contain relatively low amounts of sugar, but they are calorie-dense due to their alcohol and carbohydrate content. A typical pint of beer can contain around 200–250 calories, depending on the alcohol strength and style (lighter beers tend to be lower, stronger or craft beers higher). Wine generally contains little residual sugar in dry varieties, but calories can still add up quickly. A large glass of wine may contain around 120–200 calories, and sweeter wines (such as dessert wines or some rosé and off-dry varieties) can contain more sugar and therefore additional calories. While beer and wine are not major sources of added sugar, the alcohol itself provides energy that is not always fully compensated for in the rest of the diet. Over time, regular consumption can contribute significantly to total daily calorie intake without creating strong feelings of fullness. Why Alcohol Can Promote Weight Gain Alcohol may contribute to weight gain through several mechanisms: Additional Calories Many people consume alcohol on top of their normal food intake. Increased Appetite Alcohol can stimulate appetite and reduce inhibitions around food choices, making it easier to overeat. Poorer Food Choices After drinking alcohol, people are more likely to choose highly processed foods that are high in fat, sugar, and salt. Disrupted Sleep Although alcohol may initially make people feel sleepy, it often reduces sleep quality and can disrupt hormones involved in appetite regulation. The Hidden Weekend Effect A person may be very health-conscious during the week but unknowingly consume hundreds or even thousands of additional calories from alcoholic drinks over a weekend. For example: Two glasses of wine on Friday Several beers on Saturday Cocktails at a social event These calories can accumulate without creating much fullness or satiety. Is There a Better Choice? From a weight-management perspective and overall health perspective, the best choice is to reduce overall alcohol intake. If alcohol is consumed, lower-sugar options such as dry wines or spirits mixed with sparkling water generally contain less sugar than cocktails, liqueurs, sweet wines, or sugary mixed drinks. However, it is important to remember that even low-sugar alcoholic beverages still provide calories from alcohol itself. How Sugary Drinks Contribute to Obesity Several mechanisms help explain the connection. Poor Satiety Calories consumed through beverages tend to be less filling than calories from whole foods. One of the key reasons liquid calories contribute to weight gain is that they bypass many of the body’s natural appetite regulation mechanisms. Solid foods require chewing, digestion and time to be processed, all of which contribute to satiety signals in the brain. Liquid calories, on the other hand, pass through the digestive system quickly and do not trigger the same fullness response. As a result, the body does not reliably reduce food intake later in the day to compensate for the calories consumed in drinks. Excess Energy Intake People often consume sugary drinks alongside meals rather than instead of food. Rapid Blood Sugar Response Sugary drinks are digested and absorbed very quickly because they contain carbohydrates in a “pre-dissolved” form. Unlike solid foods, they require no chewing and very little digestive breakdown before the sugar enters the bloodstream. As a result, blood glucose levels can rise rapidly after consumption. In response, the body releases insulin, a hormone that helps move glucose from the blood into cells to be used for energy or stored for later use. Because liquid sugars are absorbed so quickly, they often lead to a sharper and faster rise in blood glucose and insulin compared with the same amount of sugar consumed in whole foods. This is partly because whole foods—such as fruit, legumes, or whole grains—contain fibre and structural components that slow digestion and absorption. Over time, frequent spikes in blood glucose and insulin may contribute to increased hunger and energy intake. Some research also suggests that habitual high intake of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with reduced insulin sensitivity and a higher risk of metabolic conditions, including type 2 diabetes. Another important factor is that liquid calories do not trigger the same satiety signals as solid foods. This means that even after a sugary drink, people often continue eating their usual amount of food, rather than naturally compensating for the extra calories consumed in liquid form. For this reason, sugary drinks are considered one of the most efficient ways to consume excess calories without feeling full—one of the mechanisms thought to contribute to weight gain over time. Habitual Consumption Beverages can be consumed quickly and repeatedly throughout the day, making it easy to accumulate hundreds of additional calories. Are Zero and Diet Drinks a Better Choice? This question generates considerable debate. Compared with sugar-sweetened beverages, Diet Coke, Coke Zero, Pepsi Max and similar products typically contain few or no calories and do not produce the same blood sugar response. For someone regularly consuming multiple sugary soft drinks daily, switching to a diet version may reduce sugar and calorie intake. However, this does not automatically make these beverages health-promoting. Researchers continue to investigate whether artificial sweeteners may influence: Appetite regulation Food preferences Gut microbiota composition Metabolic health The evidence remains mixed. Experts such as Tim Spector generally encourage people to focus on reducing the overall preference for intensely sweet foods and drinks rather than replacing sugar with increasing amounts of artificial sweeteners. Learn more about artificial sweeteners here. Why Sugary Drinks Matter Even More for Children Reducing sugary drinks is particularly important during childhood. Taste preferences begin to develop early in life, and children who regularly consume sweetened beverages may become accustomed to very sweet flavours, making water and less sweet foods seem less appealing. Sugary drinks can also easily become a daily habit. Because children have lower energy needs than adults, a single can of soda or other sweetened beverage can contribute a much larger proportion of their recommended daily sugar intake. Over time, this may increase the risk of excess calorie intake, weight gain, tooth decay, and poor dietary habits. Helping children develop a preference for water and other low-sugar beverages from an early age can support healthier eating habits that may last into adulthood. What Should You Drink Instead? The healthiest beverages remain relatively simple: Water Sparkling water Herbal tea Unsweetened tea Coffee without added sugar Kombucha (check the sugar content if you purchase it from a store) If you enjoy flavoured drinks, try adding: Fresh berries Citrus slices Mint Cucumber Fresh herbs These can provide flavour without large amounts of added sugar. Final Thoughts The aim of this article is not to convince you to give up all sweetened drinks or to make you feel that a single soda, juice, or iced tea will harm your health. Rather, the goal is to help you notice how large a proportion of our daily sugar intake can come from beverages. Many people pay attention to sweets, cakes, and biscuits, but are not aware that a significant amount of sugar may actually come from soft drinks, energy drinks, flavoured waters, juices, nectars, sports drinks, smoothies, or alcohol. Since “liquid” calories do not usually create the same sense of fullness as solid foods, it is easy to consume more than the body actually needs. This is especially important to consider in children and young people. Taste preferences develop early, and the more frequently very sweet drinks are offered, the more normal the sweet taste becomes. The good news is that taste buds adapt. If the consumption of sweetened drinks is gradually reduced, many people will over time start to prefer less sweet drinks and foods. Take a moment to review your diet. How many sweetened drinks and sugary foods are part of your or your family’s typical week? Is there a drink you could consume less often, in smaller amounts, or replace with water, herbal tea, or another less sweet alternative? Often, no major changes are needed. Even one or two small steps can, over time, help reduce excess sugar intake and support a healthier body weight, better metabolic health, and overall well-being. From a health perspective, the goal is not perfection, but awareness and consistently making better choices. If you want to improve your diet, reduce the intake of added sugar and need professional guidance, don't hesitate to reach out to me to schedule a personalised nutrition counselling session at info@katrinpeo.com. Additional scientific reading: Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis Dietary sugars and body weight: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies Effects of food form on appetite and energy intake in lean and obese young adults

Walk into almost any office today and you’ll likely find snacks everywhere — biscuits in meeting rooms, candy bowls at reception desks, pastries next to coffee machines, protein bars in kitchens or drawers, and crisps or sweet treats available throughout the day. Having visited quite a few workplaces and delivered presentations on health and nutrition, I’ve seen firsthand how common snacking has become in modern life. At the same time, I have also seen some truly positive examples. There are workplaces that offer employees fresh fruit, berries, nuts, seeds, and other healthier snack options that genuinely support energy, concentration, and wellbeing. So while modern snacking culture certainly has its challenges, there are also encouraging signs that many companies are becoming more health-conscious and supportive of employee wellbeing. Many of us consider ourselves “snackers”. Research suggests that around 25% of our daily calories may come from snacks alone. That is a significant portion of our daily food intake — not just nutritionally, but also metabolically. How Snacking Culture Has Changed Growing up in the 1980s and early 1990s, things looked very different. Petrol stations mainly sold petrol. Grocery stores had limited options for portable snack foods. Eating while walking, driving simply wasn’t common for most people. Today, food is available everywhere: petrol stations, supermarkets, office kitchens, vending machines, cafés, airports, gyms, etc. Modern food environments constantly encourage us to eat “on the go.” Convenience foods and snack marketing are now deeply embedded into daily life. While it may not be realistic to completely eliminate snacking, we can absolutely make better choices around what we snack on and why we snack. Is Snacking Really a Problem? Not necessarily. Snacking itself is not automatically unhealthy. In fact, snacks can sometimes help support energy levels, concentration, blood sugar balance, and nutrient intake. The bigger question is: What are we snacking on, how often, and why? Many modern snacks are highly processed and designed to be hyper-palatable — rich in sugar, salt, refined carbohydrates, unhealthy fats, and additives, while being low in fibre, protein, vitamins, and minerals. These foods are often easy to overeat and may leave us unsatisfied shortly after eating them. What Happens in the Body When We Graze All Day? From a biological perspective, constant grazing can affect several systems in the body. Every time we eat — especially foods and drinks rich in refined carbohydrates and sugar — our blood sugar levels rise. In response, the pancreas releases insulin to help move glucose into cells. If we snack continuously throughout the day, especially on ultra-processed foods, the body may remain in a more constant “fed state.” This can lead to: more frequent blood sugar spikes and crashes, increased cravings, difficulty recognising true hunger and fullness signals, overeating later in the day, and in some individuals, poorer metabolic health over time. Constant grazing may also reduce the digestive system’s natural rest periods. Some research suggests that late-night snacking in particular may negatively impact blood sugar regulation and blood fat levels. However, context matters. A handful of nuts and berries is metabolically very different from repeatedly eating sweets, pastries, crisps, or sugary drinks throughout the day. Before We Blame Snacks — Let’s Look at Main Meals One of the most important questions is: Are our main meals actually satisfying and balanced enough? Breakfast, lunch, and dinner should provide enough total energy for our needs and ideally include a balance of: protein, healthy fats, fibre-rich carbohydrates When meals are balanced and nourishing, many people naturally feel less need to snack constantly. But when meals are low in protein, low in fibre, or insufficient overall, hunger quickly returns. For example: A breakfast of sugary cereal or toast with jam may digest quickly and leave us hungry within a couple of hours. A lunch consisting of a hot dog, pastry, or processed convenience food may lack protein, fibre, and micronutrients, leading to energy crashes and strong cravings later in the day. This often creates a cycle of: under-fuelling earlier in the day, intense hunger later, overeating in the evening, followed by more cravings and snacking. In many cases, improving meal quality naturally reduces excessive snacking. Sometimes the Problem Isn't Food If you find yourself constantly craving snacks, it may be worth looking beyond your diet. Poor sleep can increase hunger, reduce appetite control and increase cravings for sugary and highly processed foods. Stress can have similar effects, leading many people to reach for convenient comfort foods. Sometimes improving sleep habits and stress management can reduce the urge to snack far more effectively than relying on willpower alone. Who Might Benefit From Snacks? Not everyone needs snacks between meals. For some people, three balanced meals per day may be perfectly adequate. For others, snacks can play an important role in helping meet energy and nutrient needs. People who may genuinely benefit from snacks between meals include: growing children and teenagers, athletes and physically active individuals, people with high energy needs, individuals with long gaps between meals, older adults with smaller appetites, pregnant or breastfeeding women, people recovering from illness, injury, or surgery, and some individuals who benefit from spreading their food intake more evenly throughout the day. For active children, teenagers, and athletes, snacks can provide additional energy, protein, and nutrients needed for growth, recovery, and performance. For older adults, nutrient-dense snacks may help support adequate protein and energy intake when larger meals become more difficult to consume. The goal is not to fear snacks — but to make them more nourishing and intentional. Why Are We Reaching for Snacks? Not all snacking is driven by physical hunger. Many of us snack because: we're stressed we're tired we're bored food is visible and easily available we're taking a break from work everyone around us is eating Before reaching for a snack, it can be helpful to pause and ask yourself: Am I physically hungry? Am I thirsty? Am I stressed or overwhelmed? Am I simply looking for a break? Learning to distinguish physical hunger from emotional or environmental triggers can help us make more intentional food choices. The Real Problem: Snack Quality The issue is often not the snack itself, but the quality of the snack. If roughly 25% of our calories come from snacks, then those foods have a major impact on: energy levels, nutrient intake, gut health, blood sugar balance, heart health, concentration, and long-term wellbeing. A snack that contains protein, fibre, and healthy fats can help stabilise energy and support fullness. A snack built mostly from sugar, refined starch, and highly processed ingredients may do the opposite. For example: an apple with almonds a fruit juice with a cereal bar Both snacks may provide similar calories, yet the first snack contains significantly more fibre and protein, which often helps keep us fuller for longer. Focusing on whole and minimally processed foods can help make snacks more satisfying and nutritious. What the ZOE Snacking Research Found Interestingly, there is still surprisingly little research specifically on snacking. Researchers at ZOE decided to investigate this further in their own snacking study. Their findings were fascinating: The number of snacks and snack calories alone did not strongly predict poor health outcomes. Instead, low-quality snacks were associated with worse health markers. Late-night snacking (especially after 9pm) was linked with poorer blood sugar control and higher blood fat levels. Overall, the message was encouraging: You do not necessarily need to stop snacking — but you may benefit greatly from snacking smarter. Eating nutrient-dense snacks earlier in the day may have very different effects compared with regularly eating high-calorie snacks late in the evening. Snacks Can Feed More Than Just You Every snack is an opportunity to nourish your gut microbiome. Foods such as berries, nuts, seeds, beans, chickpeas, vegetables and fermented foods provide fibre and plant compounds that help support a diverse and healthy gut ecosystem. Rather than seeing snacks simply as calories between meals, we can view them as opportunities to increase plant diversity and support long-term digestive and overall health. Healthy Snacks Should Ideally Include… The most satisfying snacks contain a combination of: protein, fibre, healthy fats, For example: apple + nuts, yoghurt + berries + seeds, hummus + vegetables, rye bread + egg, kefir smoothie with chia seeds. These combinations tend to support: steadier blood sugar, improved fullness, better concentration, and reduced cravings later in the day. 25 Smarter Snack Swaps Small swaps repeated daily can make a surprisingly large impact on health, energy, cholesterol levels, gut health, and blood sugar balance. Instead of… Try swapping to… Milk chocolate bar Dark chocolate (70%+ cacao) with nuts Crisps/potato chips Roasted nuts or roasted chickpeas Sugary breakfast bar Apple with nut butter Sweetened yoghurt Plain Greek yogurt with fresh or frozen berries Pastries Boiled eggs with vegetables Ice cream Greek yoghurt with frozen berries, or cottage cheese blended with frozen berries Candy Dates with nuts Sugary cereal snack Chocolate banana nut butter bites White bread sandwich Rye bread with hummus or avocado and salmon Sugary iced coffee Coffee with milk and nuts on the side Energy drink Sparkling water with berries/citrus or 150ml of kombucha Sugary smoothie Homemade protein-rich smoothie with seeds Cookies Homemade cookies, like these hempseed and banana cookies Cinnamon bun Homemade muffins, why not try and make blueberry muffins Processed protein bar Handful of nuts and fruit or make your own protein bars Sweetened granola Plain oats with yoghurt and berries or make your own granola at home Sugary soft drink Kombucha or sparkling water Fast-food milkshake Kefir smoothie Rice cakes Seed crackers with hummus Processed cheese snacks Cottage cheese with cucumber or vegetable sticks (carrot, celery, paprika, kohlrabi) with a bean dip Sugary puddings Chia pudding with berries Fried snack foods Edamame beans Processed deli snack Cooked chicken slices with veggies Sugary bubble tea Unsweetened tea with fruit Drive-through snack meal Homemade snack box with eggs, veggies, hummus, nuts Questions Worth Asking Yourself Instead of aiming for perfection, simply becoming more aware of your habits can already make a big difference. Ask yourself: Could I add more protein to my snack? (for example Greek yoghurt, cottage cheese, eggs, kefir, nuts, seeds, hummus or leftover chicken) Could I increase fibre in my snacks? (berries, vegetables, fruit, rye bread, oats, seeds, beans, chickpeas) Could I reduce ultra-processed snack foods? (less candy, pastries, crisps, sugary drinks, highly processed bars and packaged snacks) Could I prepare one better option ahead of time? (boiled eggs, chopped vegetables, overnight oats, homemade trail mix of nuts, seeds and dried fruit, yoghurt pots with berries and chia seeds, roasted chickpeas) Even changing just one or two snack habits per day can have a meaningful impact over time. Snacking Smarter — Not Perfectly Snacking is likely here to stay in modern society. The goal is not perfection or restriction. The goal should be awareness. When we begin to understand: why we snack, what our bodies truly need, and how different foods affect our energy, mood, concentration, hunger, and long-term health, we can make choices that genuinely support wellbeing. Every snack is an opportunity to add something beneficial to your diet. Rather than focusing only on what to avoid, consider what you could add: more protein, more fibre, more plant diversity, more healthy fats, or more fermented foods. Small improvements made consistently over time can have a meaningful impact on energy, gut health, blood sugar balance, heart health and overall wellbeing. Sometimes the smallest habits — repeated daily — have the biggest impact. If you are looking to improve your nutrition to support your health goals, whether it's to loose weight, have more energy and mental clarity, better digestive health, skin health, cardiovascular health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personal nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com.

If you love risotto, but would like to try something more nourishing and fibre-rich, then orsotto might become your new favourite comfort food. Orsotto is very similar to risotto, but instead of arborio rice, it is made with barley. The result is creamy, earthy, satisfying, and wonderfully comforting. I love making mushroom orsotto during the colder months or whenever I want something hearty that still supports health and digestion. It is also a lovely way to include more mushrooms into your diet — something many of us do not eat often enough. The beauty of this dish is that it works beautifully with fresh seasonal mushrooms such as chanterelles or porcini mushrooms, but outside the mushroom season, a good frozen mushroom mix works very well too. I love this frozen mushroom mix. Why Barley Deserves More Attention Barley is one of the oldest cultivated grains and a true nutritional powerhouse. Unfortunately, it is often overlooked in modern diets. One of barley’s biggest health benefits comes from its high content of beta-glucan fibre — the same type of fibre also found in oats. Beta-glucans have been studied for their ability to help lower LDL (“bad”) cholesterol levels and support heart health. Barley may also help: Support healthy blood sugar balance Improve satiety and keep you fuller for longer Support digestive and gut health Provide important minerals such as selenium, magnesium, and phosphorus Compared to traditional risotto rice, barley contains more fibre and has a lower glycemic impact, making it a nourishing alternative for many people. Because barley takes longer to cook than risotto rice, you can soak it overnight to reduce the cooking time. However, it cooks perfectly well without soaking too. Why Mushrooms Are Nutritional Gems Mushrooms are often underestimated nutritionally, yet they are rich in valuable compounds that support overall health. Depending on the variety, mushrooms can provide: B vitamins for energy metabolism Selenium for immune support Ergothioneine — an antioxidant Fibre to support gut health D-vitamin (one of the tips to use is to put your mushrooms into the sun for 15-60 minutes to increase vitamin D content in them) Mushrooms have a natural umami flavour, which adds richness without needing excessive cream or additives. Many mushrooms also contain compounds being studied for their potential immune-supportive and anti-inflammatory properties. Using a mixed mushroom blend gives the dish more depth and complexity of flavour. Fresh wild mushrooms in season are wonderful, but frozen mushroom mixtures are a practical and nutritious option year-round. Creamy Mushroom Orsotto Recipe Serves 3–4 Ingredients 1 cup pearl barley 1 onion, finely chopped 2–3 garlic cloves, minced 2–3 tbsp olive oil About 750 ml–1 litre chicken broth (I use in Estonia Food Studio chicken broth, if I don't happen to have my own broth made and available) 300–400 g mushrooms (fresh or frozen mixed mushrooms) Freshly grated nutmeg 50–70 g parmesan cheese, grated Salt and black pepper to taste Fresh parsley, chopped Serve it with half a plate of oven-roasted side vegetables Asparagus Courgette Paprika Other non-starchy vegetables Instructions Heat olive oil in a large pan and gently fry the onion until soft and translucent. Add the garlic and cook for another minute. Stir in the barley and roast it together with the onion and garlic mixture for about 4–5 minutes. This helps develop a lovely nutty flavour. Begin adding the chicken broth gradually, similarly to making risotto. Stir occasionally and allow the barley to absorb the liquid before adding more. Grate in a little nutmeg while cooking for warmth and depth of flavour. In a separate pan, fry the mushrooms in olive oil. Season with salt and pepper. Continue cooking the barley until tender. Depending on the barley and whether it was soaked beforehand, this may take around 35–50 minutes. Once ready, stir in the grated parmesan cheese and mushrooms. Serve topped with fresh parsley. I love serving orsotto with a large salad or oven-grilled vegetables such as asparagus, courgette, or paprika. The freshness of the vegetables balances the creaminess of the dish beautifully. Final Thoughts This mushroom orsotto is a wonderful example of how comfort food can also be deeply nourishing. It is rich in flavour, fibre, and nutrients, while still feeling indulgent and satisfying. It is also a lovely reminder that healthy eating does not need to be complicated. Simple ingredients like barley, mushrooms, olive oil, and parmesan can come together to create something both delicious and supportive for long-term health.

There’s something very special about seasonal foods that only appear for a short time each year. Wild garlic is one of those spring treasures I look forward to every season. Yesterday I picked the batch of wild garlic from my garden before the plants start flowering. Wild garlic leaves are at their best before blooming, when the leaves are tender, vibrant and full of flavour. After flowering the leaves become grassy and a bit bitter. I love turning wild garlic into pesto because it’s one of the easiest ways to preserve this nutritious spring herb for later use. I store some jars in the fridge for the next 1–2 weeks for immediate consumption and freeze the rest. Frozen wild garlic pesto keeps very well and is a wonderful way to add extra flavour, greens and nutrients to meals during the darker winter months. What Is Wild Garlic? Wild garlic (Allium ursinum), also called ramsons or bear garlic, is a wild leafy plant from the allium family, related to garlic, onions and leeks. It grows abundantly in many parts of Europe during spring and has a distinctive fresh garlic aroma. The leaves are rich green, soft and tender when young. Because some poisonous plants such as lily of the valley can look similar, wild garlic should only be picked when you are certain of identification. One of the easiest ways to recognise it is the unmistakable garlic smell when the leaves are crushed. Health Benefits of Wild Garlic Wild garlic is not only delicious but also nutritious. Some potential benefits include: Rich in antioxidants that help protect body cells from oxidative stress Contains sulphur compounds similar to cultivated garlic that may support heart health May help support healthy cholesterol and blood pressure levels Naturally contains vitamin C, vitamin A and plant compounds that support immunity Adds flavour to meals while helping increase vegetable and herb intake Like other allium vegetables, wild garlic may also help support gut health thanks to its prebiotic compounds that feed beneficial gut bacteria. Easy Wild Garlic Pesto Recipe Inspired by classic wild garlic pesto recipes, including versions shared by chefs and food creators online. Ingredients 2 large handfuls wild garlic leaves 40–50 g parmesan cheese 40–50 g pine nuts, walnuts, almonds, pistachio nuts (raw) or pumpkin seeds 100–150 ml extra virgin olive oil Small squeeze of lemon juice Pinch of sea salt Black pepper to taste Instructions Wash and dry the wild garlic leaves thoroughly. Lightly toast the nuts in a pan (without the oil) if desired for extra flavour. Add wild garlic, nuts and parmesan into a food processor. Slowly add olive oil while blending until you reach your preferred consistency. Add lemon juice, salt and pepper to taste. Transfer into clean glass jars and cover the top with a thin layer of olive oil to help preserve freshness. How I Store Wild Garlic Pesto I usually keep one to two small jars in the fridge for everyday use and freeze the rest. The pesto freezes surprisingly well and can be used in: pasta dishes salad dressings roasted vegetables sandwiches and wraps savoury yoghurt dips It’s such a simple way to preserve a little bit of spring and add more plants to your diet.

In recent years, there has been growing awareness that our food choices affect not only our own health, but also the future of the planet. The way food is produced and consumed influences climate change, biodiversity, soil quality, water use, and environmental sustainability. At the same time, rates of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and other chronic illnesses continue to rise globally. This raises an important question: Can we eat in a way that supports both our health and the health of the planet? Increasingly, scientific research suggests that the answer is yes. Two dietary approaches that have gained considerable attention are: the Planetary Health Diet (developed by the EAT-Lancet Commission, a group of 37 international scientists and experts in nutrition, sustainability, agriculture, and public health) and the Portfolio Diet (developed by Dr. David J. A. Jenkins, a Canadian physician-scientist, nutrition researcher, and professor at the University of Toronto) Although these approaches were developed with somewhat different goals, they share many important principles. Both emphasise more plant-based, fibre-rich, minimally processed foods and a reduction in highly processed products and excessive saturated fat intake. What Is the Planetary Health Diet? The Planetary Health Diet was introduced by the EAT-Lancet Commission in 2019 as a global dietary framework designed to support both human health and environmental sustainability. The goal is not necessarily to eliminate all animal products, but rather to create a balanced dietary pattern that emphasises: vegetables fruits legumes whole grains nuts and seeds healthy fats moderate amounts of animal foods At the same time, the diet encourages reducing: red and processed meat ultra-processed foods excessive added sugars and environmentally intensive food production patterns. Research suggests that greater adherence to the Planetary Health Diet is associated with: lower risk of cardiovascular disease, lower overall mortality, and a lower environmental footprint. A large prospective study found that higher adherence to the Planetary Health Diet was associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer, respiratory disease, and neurodegenerative disease mortality. The importance of this approach goes beyond personal nutrition. Food systems are estimated to contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation, freshwater use, and biodiversity loss. Shifting toward more plant-forward dietary patterns may therefore support both public and planetary health. What Is the Portfolio Diet? The Portfolio Diet was originally developed as a dietary strategy specifically aimed at lowering LDL (“bad”) cholesterol naturally through food. Rather than focusing on one “superfood,” the Portfolio Diet combines several cholesterol-lowering foods into a dietary “portfolio.” The key components include: plant proteins such as beans, lentils, soy foods, and peas nuts viscous soluble fibres such as oats, barley, psyllium, and legumes plant sterols healthy unsaturated fats The diet also recommends reducing: saturated fats processed meats and highly processed foods. Clinical studies have shown that the Portfolio Diet can significantly reduce LDL cholesterol levels, sometimes approaching reductions seen with first-line cholesterol-lowering medications in certain individuals. Research has also linked greater adherence to the Portfolio Diet with: lower cardiovascular disease risk, improved metabolic health, and lower inflammation markers. One of the strengths of the Portfolio Diet is that it is based on adding beneficial foods rather than focusing only on restriction. Where the Two Approaches Overlap Although the Planetary Health Diet and Portfolio Diet were designed with different primary goals, they overlap considerably. Both emphasise: more plant-based foods more fibre legumes and whole grains nuts and seeds healthier fat sources and fewer ultra-processed foods. Interestingly, many foods that support cardiovascular and metabolic health also tend to have a lower environmental impact. Examples include: beans and lentils oats and barley vegetables nuts and seeds. This means that dietary choices beneficial for human health may often also support environmental sustainability. Fibre – One of the Missing Pieces in Modern Diets One of the strongest common themes in both dietary approaches is the importance of dietary fibre. Many people consume far less fibre than recommended (for men, recommended is minimum 35g of fibre per day, for women it's 25g of fibre per day, for children it's 7g+ their age), despite its important role in supporting: gut microbiome diversity blood sugar balance satiety digestive health and cholesterol management. Particularly beneficial are viscous soluble fibres such as beta-glucans, naturally found in: oats barley legumes These fibres form a gel-like substance in the digestive tract, which may help reduce cholesterol absorption and support more stable blood sugar levels. Fibre-rich diets have also been associated with lower risk of: cardiovascular disease type 2 diabetes colorectal cancer and obesity Small Changes Can Make a Meaningful Difference Supporting health and sustainability does not require dietary perfection. Even small shifts can have a meaningful impact: replacing some meat-based meals with legumes or incorporating them in meat-based meals such as bolognese sauce including more whole grains such as oats and barley increasing vegetables intake reducing ultra-processed foods and cooking more meals at home. The focus does not need to be on strict rules, but rather on creating a more balanced and nutrient-dense dietary pattern over time. Practical Foods That Fit Both Approaches Many simple everyday meals align naturally with both the Planetary Health Diet and the Portfolio Diet. Breakfast Ideas Oatmeal with berries, flaxseeds, walnuts, and cinnamon Overnight oats with chia seeds and kefir or plant (soy) yoghurt Whole grain rye bread with hummus and vegetables Greek yoghurt or kefir with nuts, seeds, and fruit Chia pudding with berries and chopped nuts Smoothies with berries, spinach, oats, flaxseeds, and protein-rich yoghurt or tofu Whole grain porridge with apple, cinnamon, and seeds Avocado on rye bread with sprouts and pumpkin seeds Lunch and Dinner Ideas Lentil soup with root vegetables Bean and vegetable stews Chickpea curry with vegetables Mushroom barley orsotto Whole grain pasta with tomato, lentils, and vegetables Roasted vegetable quinoa bowls Stir-fried tofu with broccoli and brown rice Vegetable and bean chilli Stuffed bell peppers with lentils and vegetables Baked salmon with roasted vegetables and barley Mediterranean bean salad with olive oil and herbs Whole grain wraps with hummus, vegetables, and beans Warm lentil and roasted vegetable salads Minestrone soup with beans and vegetables Vegetable tray bakes with chickpeas and tahini dressing Buckwheat with mushrooms and greens Red lentil dhal with vegetables Cabbage and barley soups Sardines on rye bread with salad Oven-roasted cauliflower and chickpea bowls Snacks and Smaller Meals Hummus with carrot, cucumber, or paprika sticks Apple slices with nut butter Handful of walnuts or almonds Roasted chickpeas Edamame beans Rye crisp-bread with avocado Natural unflavoured yoghurt with seeds Berry and oat smoothies Homemade energy balls with oats and nuts Pears with walnuts Cottage cheese with vegetables and seeds Final Thoughts Nutrition conversations often focus heavily on what people should avoid. But perhaps an equally important question is: What should we add more of? More fibre. More plants. More whole foods. More diversity. More minimally processed ingredients. The Planetary Health Diet and Portfolio Diet are not short-term trends or restrictive “detoxes.” They are science-based dietary patterns that encourage sustainable habits capable of supporting heart health, metabolic wellbeing, gut health, and potentially even environmental sustainability. Perhaps healthy eating is not only about supporting our own future health — but also about helping create a healthier future for the planet itself. Think about it..... If you would want to know how can you change your nutrition to support your every-day health better, to learn about some tips that work with your lifestyle, your resources, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com to schedule a session.

Menopause is a significant transition in a woman's life, marking the end of her reproductive years. Women spend an average 40% of their lives in menopause and it's unfairly little talked about. If you search Pubmed (a source of biomedical and life sciences literature used by health and medical professionals for supportive data) for 'pregnancy', you get around 114,000 articles. If you search for menopause, you get around 9,700 articles. If you search for menopause and nutrition, you get around 550 articles- clearly a scientific research area that lacks funding and attention. Understanding what happens during perimenopause and menopause period and how to manage it through nutrition and lifestyle can significantly enhance woman's well-being. This article explores the stages of peri-menopause and menopause, the changes in a woman's body, and provides actionable tips for maintaining health and vitality. Photo source: Unsplash Understanding Perimenopause and Menopause Perimenopause  is the period leading up to menopause, often starting in a woman's 40s but sometimes as early as her mid-30s. During this time, the ovaries gradually produce less oestrogen, leading to irregular menstrual cycles and a range of symptoms. Menopause  is officially diagnosed after a woman has gone 12 months without a menstrual period. The average age for menopause is 51. This stage signifies the end of ovarian function and a significant drop in oestrogen and progesterone levels in a woman's body. Changes in the Body During Menopause The hormonal shifts during peri-menopause and menopause (decline in oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone) cause various physical and emotional changes, including: Hot Flashes and Night Sweats:  Sudden feelings of heat, often accompanied by sweating and redness, are common. Mood Swings:  Hormonal fluctuations can lead to irritability, anxiety, depression and brain fog. Sleep Disturbances:  Many women experience insomnia or disrupted sleep patterns. Weight Gain:  A slower metabolism can lead to weight gain, especially around the abdomen. Women have a higher risk developing type II diabetes in this stage of life. Bone Density Loss:  Decreased oestrogen levels can result in weakened bones, increasing the risk of osteoporosis. Frozen Shoulder (you feel pain and like your arm is stuck) Cardiovascular Changes:  The risk of heart disease increases in menopause due to increases in cholesterol levels and blood pressure. Hair Loss, Brittle Nails and Wrinkles Vertigo and Tinnitus : changes in oestrogen can affect the inner ear, also having an impact on our balance Vaginal Dryness Both oestrogen and progesterone have a health protective role in a woman's body. Testosterone decline in menopause affect drive for life and also our sex life. Approaching Nutrition During Menopause A well-balanced diet can help manage symptoms and reduce health risks associated with menopause. Here are key nutritional strategies: Eat 80% Plant Based and 20% Animal Based Foods - think Mediterranean menu Focus on Calcium and Vitamin D together with Vitamin K2:  Essential for bone health, these nutrients help prevent osteoporosis. Include dairy products (fermented dairy (kefir, plain yoghurt), goat cheese, cottage cheese, leafy greens (cooked kale, spinach, collard greens, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts), beans, sardines with bones, sesame seeds, almonds. K2 vitamin you can get from natto, sauerkraut, chicken, beef liver, eggs, cheese (Pecorino, Gouda, Gruyere, soft cheese) etc. Prioritise Protein:  Adequate protein intake supports muscle mass, which declines with age. Incorporate lean meats, fish, seafood, beans, lentils and nuts. Aim for 1.2g per body weight kg a day, so if you weigh 60kg, aim for 72g of protein from food spread out during your meals of the day. Healthy Fats:  Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, anchovies), cod liver, flaxseeds, hemp seeds, chia seeds and walnuts, can reduce inflammation and improve heart health. Fibre-Rich Foods :  Whole grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables aid digestion and help manage weight. Aim for 25g of fibre a day. Phytoestrogens:  Plant-based oestrogens found in soy products (tofu, edamame, tempeh), flaxseeds, sesame seeds, dried apricots, cashews, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, Brussels sprouts and legumes may help balance hormones. Phytoprogestins: Green and black tea, parsley, celery, artichokes, rosemary, arugula, kale, capers, oranges Reduce or Avoid Added Sugar : Aim not to consume more than 25g of added sugar a day Reduce or Avoid Ultra-Processed Foods Consume Fermented Foods and Drinks as well as Prebiotic Foods for gut health Stay Hydrated:  Drink adequate amounts of water to manage bloating and dry skin. The amount depends on the person's weight, where they live, how much they exercise etc. Consider adding electrolytes to your water. Learn more about water and electrolytes here . Intermittent-Fasting : Take a break from food for 12h each night to support body detox, cell renewal. If you are not experiencing a lot of stress and are eating a healthy-balanced diet, you can try 14-16h fast at night during 2 days a week, where you eat your meals in 8-10h window during the day. But it's important to note here, that you get the necessary protein from your meals during these hours. Lifestyle Changes to Embrace Adopting a healthy lifestyle can alleviate many menopausal symptoms and enhance overall well-being. Consider the following: Regular Exercise:  Aim for at least 30 minutes of moderate activity most days. Resistance training 3 times a week, walking with weighted vest, are particularly beneficial for bone health. Mindfulness and Stress Management :  Practices such as yoga, meditation, pilates and deep-breathing exercises can help manage mood swings and stress. Adequate Sleep:  Establish a regular sleep routine (aim for 8 hours a night) and create a restful environment to improve sleep quality . Avoid Triggers:  Identify and avoid triggers for hot flashes, such as spicy foods, caffeine, and alcohol. Quit Smoking:  Smoking can exacerbate menopausal symptoms and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. Regular Check-ups:  Routine health screenings for bone density, cholesterol levels, and blood pressure are crucial. Have an open discussion about Hormonal Replacement Therapy (HRT) with your gynaecologist. For many women it could be life-saving during menopause. For some women it could be counter-intuitive. Menopause is a natural phase of a woman's life, but it comes with its challenges. By understanding the changes happening in your body and proactively managing your diet and lifestyle, you can navigate this transition with much more confidence and grace. Prioritise a balanced diet rich in essential nutrients, stay active, and practice self-care to maintain your health and well-being during peri-menopause and menopause. If you need a professional to analyse your current diet, provide guidance where to improve it, support you on your journey towards better health, don't hesitate to reach out to me at info@katrinpeo.com . I was recently asked by Dr. Mari Laasma to be part of their longevity program 'Reverse' team as a nutritionist to support women aged 40+. If you are a woman living in Estonia, you are in perimenopause or menopause and want to learn and practice better health, visit the Longevity page to read more and sign up .

Allergies are becoming increasingly common worldwide—from seasonal hay fever to food allergies and intolerances. Many people ask: 👉 Why do allergies develop? 👉 Can they be prevented—or even reversed? The answer is more complex than it may seem. What Is an Allergy? An allergy is an overreaction of the immune system  to substances that are normally harmless, such as: pollen dust mites certain foods (e.g. nuts, dairy, eggs) In allergic individuals, the immune system identifies these substances as a threat and produces antibodies (IgE), triggering the release of histamine and other inflammatory compounds. This leads to symptoms such as: sneezing, congestion itching, rashes digestive discomfort in severe cases, anaphylaxis, where one develops breathing difficulties, swelling of the tongue/throat, hives, and low blood pressure, requiring immediate treatment with intramuscular epinephrine (EpiPen) Why Are Allergies Increasing? The rise in allergies cannot be explained by genetics alone—it has happened too quickly. Research suggests a combination of factors: 1. Changes in Microbial Exposure (Hygiene Hypothesis) Modern lifestyles involve: less exposure to natural environments (urbanisation and too little time spent in nature) increased sanitation reduced contact with diverse microbes This may affect how the immune system develops, making it more prone to reacting to harmless substances. 2. Gut Microbiome and Immune Tolerance The gut plays a central role in immune regulation. Early-life microbiome development is critical Lower microbial diversity is linked to higher allergy risk Factors like antibiotics, C-section birth, and diet influence this A healthy microbiome helps the immune system learn what is harmful and what is safe 3. Barrier Function (Gut, Skin, Airways) Your body has protective barriers: gut lining skin respiratory tract If these barriers are compromised: allergens may enter more easily immune responses may become exaggerated 4. Environmental and Lifestyle Factors Additional contributors may include: air pollution ultra-processed diets chronic stress low dietary diversity These factors can influence both inflammation and immune balance. Seasonal vs Food Allergies – What’s the Difference? Seasonal allergies (e.g. hay fever) Triggered by airborne allergens (pollen, grasses) Affect respiratory system Often seasonal and recurring Food allergies Triggered by specific foods Can affect multiple systems (skin, gut, respiratory) May cause immediate or delayed reactions Food allergies involve immune responses that can range from mild to severe and, in some cases, life-threatening. Can Allergies Be Reduced? There is no single solution—but there are ways to support the body and reduce the burden on the immune system . 1. Support Immune Tolerance diverse, whole-food diet adequate fibre intake exposure to varied environments (nature, outdoors) 2. Support Gut Health include fibre-rich foods consider eating fermented foods (if tolerated) avoid unnecessary antibiotic use These approaches may help support microbial diversity and immune regulation. 3. Reduce Overall Inflammatory Load manage stress support sleep reduce ultra-processed foods This helps create a more balanced internal environment. 4. Personalised Approach Matters Allergies are highly individual. What works for one person may not work for another. In some cases, medical support and testing are essential—especially with food allergies. Can Allergies Be Eliminated? In some cases—particularly in children—certain food allergies may resolve over time. However, for many people: the goal is not elimination, but management and improved resilience. Emerging research (especially around the microbiome) is promising, but there is no universal “cure” at this stage. Final Thoughts Allergies are not caused by a single factor—they are the result of complex interactions between the immune system, environment, and lifestyle . Understanding this helps shift the focus from “quick fixes”to long-term support of immune balance and overall health. If you ware looking to get support and guidance on how to improve your diet don't hesitate to reach out to me for health coaching and nutrition counselling via e-mail at info@katrinpeo.com.

Inflammation is often discussed as something to “reduce” or “avoid,” but in reality, it is a fundamental biological process essential for survival . It is the body’s built-in defense system—activated whenever there is injury, infection, or exposure to harmful substances. The key to understanding inflammation is this: It is not inherently harmful— it becomes problematic when it is prolonged, dysregulated, or unresolved . I have covered inflammation in one of my previous posts , how to diagnose it, what causes inflammation in the body and how to support healthy inflammatory balance in the body. Acute vs. Chronic Inflammation – A Crucial Difference There are two main types of inflammation: Acute inflammation Short-term and protective Triggered by injury or infection Helps eliminate harmful agents and initiate healing Typically resolves within days Chronic inflammation Long-lasting (months or years) Can persist even without a clear threat May silently damage tissues over time Chronic inflammation often develops when the immune response fails to switch off properly , or when the body is exposed to ongoing stressors such as poor diet, stress, or environmental factors. What Happens Inside the Body During Inflammation? When inflammation is triggered, the immune system releases signaling molecules (such as cytokines) that: Increase blood flow to affected tissues Recruit immune cells to the site Activate repair processes In acute situations, this response is tightly regulated and resolves once healing is complete. However, in chronic inflammation: Immune cells remain active Inflammatory chemicals continue circulating Tissue repair and tissue damage happen simultaneously Over time, this can lead to cellular damage, oxidative stress, and impaired function . How Inflammation Affects Different Systems in the Body One of the most important things to understand is that inflammation is not local—it can affect the entire body . 1. Brain and Mental Health Chronic inflammation is increasingly linked to: Brain fog Low mood or depression Cognitive decline Inflammatory signals can influence neurotransmitters and brain function, contributing to mental health symptoms. 2. Metabolism and Blood Sugar Inflammation interferes with how the body handles glucose and insulin, contributing to: Insulin resistance Blood sugar imbalances Increased risk of type 2 diabetes 3. Cardiovascular System Persistent inflammation can damage blood vessels and promote plaque formation, increasing the risk of: Heart disease Stroke Inflammation plays a key role in the development of atherosclerosis. 4. Gut and Digestive Health The gut is both: a source  of inflammation a target  of inflammation Imbalances in gut microbiota and increased intestinal permeability can amplify inflammatory responses throughout the body. 5. Muscles, Joints, and Pain Chronic inflammation can contribute to: Joint pain Muscle aches Stiffness Unlike acute inflammation (which helps healing), chronic inflammation may slow recovery and increase tissue breakdown . 6. Immune System Dysregulation Long-term inflammation can: Overactivate the immune system (autoimmunity) Or weaken it (frequent infections) This imbalance makes the body less efficient at responding appropriately to threats. Why Chronic Inflammation Often Goes Unnoticed Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is often called “silent inflammation”  because: It does not always cause obvious symptoms It develops gradually Symptoms can be vague (fatigue, digestive issues, low energy) Common signs may include: Persistent fatigue Digestive discomfort Joint or muscle pain Brain fog Changes in mood or appetite The Bigger Picture Inflammation is not a disease—it is a biological process . But when it becomes chronic, it creates an internal environment that: disrupts normal cellular function accelerates ageing increases vulnerability to chronic disease In this way, inflammation acts less like a single problem and more like a common underlying mechanism  linking many health conditions. If you need support and guidance how to reduce inflammation in your body with nutrition and lifestyle modifications, contact me for nutrition counselling and health coaching at info@katrinpeo.com .

Inflammation has become a widely discussed topic in health and nutrition—but it is also often misunderstood. So what role does inflammation actually play in the body, and how does it affect our long-term health? What is inflammation? Inflammation is a natural and essential part of the immune system . It is the body’s response to: injury infection toxins Typical signs include redness, swelling, heat, and pain. In the short term, this process is protective and necessary for healing . When inflammation becomes a problem Problems arise when inflammation becomes chronic and low-grade . This type of inflammation: persists over time may not cause obvious symptoms can gradually damage tissues Chronic inflammation has been linked to many common conditions, including: cardiovascular disease type 2 diabetes obesity certain cancers neurodegenerative diseases Research suggests that inflammation plays an important role in the development and progression of these conditions. However, it’s important to understand: 👉 inflammation is one piece of a larger puzzle , not the only cause. In this article I also cover  how chronic inflammation affects different body parts. Why does chronic inflammation develop? Chronic inflammation is often influenced by a combination of factors: 1. Diet Highly processed foods , excess sugar , low fibre, high alcohol intake may promote inflammatory processes. 2. Excess body fat Adipose tissue (body fat) can release inflammatory signals, especially when present in excess. 3. Physical inactivity Regular movement helps regulate immune and metabolic function. 4. Stress Chronic psychological stress can activate inflammatory pathways. 5. Poor sleep Sleep deprivation is associated with increased inflammatory markers. 6. Gut health The gut microbiome plays a significant role in regulating inflammation and immune responses. Inflammation and modern lifestyle There is growing evidence that modern lifestyle patterns—such as: over-nutrition sedentary behaviour chronic stress may contribute to persistent low-grade inflammation. This may help explain why many chronic diseases often appear together and increase with age. Can you feel inflammation? Not always. Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is often described as “silent”  because: symptoms can be subtle or absent it is typically detected through biomarkers How can inflammation be assessed in the body? Inflammation in the body can be evaluated using certain laboratory markers. However, it’s important to understand that no single test can fully capture the complexity of inflammation , and results should always be interpreted in context. Common blood markers used in practice C-reactive protein (CRP)- CRP is one of the most widely used markers of inflammation. It is produced by the liver in response to inflammatory signals in the body. Standard CRP is often used to detect acute inflammation or infection High-sensitivity CRP (hs-CRP) is used to assess low-grade, chronic inflammation , particularly in relation to cardiovascular risk 👉 General reference ranges (hs-CRP): <1 mg/L  → low risk / low inflammation 1–3 mg/L  → moderate >3 mg/L  → higher inflammation Some practitioners aim for lower values, but targets such as <0.5 mg/L are not universally established clinical cut-offs. Homocysteine. Homocysteine is an amino acid involved in methylation processes in the body. Elevated levels have been associated with: increased cardiovascular risk cognitive decline impaired methylation (often linked to B-vitamin status, especially folate, B6, and B12) While homocysteine is sometimes discussed in the context of inflammation, it is better understood as a metabolic and cardiovascular risk marker rather than a direct inflammatory marker . 👉 Typical reference ranges: ~5–15 µmol/L (laboratory reference range) Some experts suggest optimal levels may be in the lower end of this range (e.g. ~5–10 µmol/L) Other markers that may provide additional context These markers do not measure inflammation directly but can provide supporting information : Ferritin. Ferritin reflects iron stores but is also an acute-phase reactant , meaning it can increase during inflammation. Elevated ferritin may indicate inflammation, infection, or iron overload Low ferritin typically reflects iron deficiency 👉 Interpretation should always consider the broader clinical picture. White blood cell count (WBC). WBC is part of the immune system response. Elevated levels may indicate infection or inflammation However, it is non-specific  and influenced by many factors Gut health and microbiome testing. Emerging research shows that gut health plays a role in regulating inflammation. Certain microbiome patterns are associated with inflammatory processes However, testing methods and interpretation are still evolving Methylation-related markers. Since homocysteine is linked to methylation, assessing nutrients such as: vitamin B12 folate vitamin B6 can provide additional insight into metabolic processes connected to overall health. While blood tests can offer useful insights, inflammation is a complex, whole-body process . Rather than relying on a single marker, it is best to: look at patterns across multiple biomarkers consider symptoms, lifestyle, and medical history interpret results with a qualified healthcare professional How to support a healthy inflammatory balance Rather than trying to “eliminate inflammation,” the goal is to support balance in the immune system . Evidence-based strategies include: Nutrition whole, minimally processed foods vegetables, fruits, legumes healthy fats from nuts, seeds, oily fish, avocado, extra-virgin olive oil Movement regular physical activity Sleep consistent, high-quality sleep Stress management mindfulness, recovery, social connection  Gut health support fibre-rich foods fermented foods Key takeaway Inflammation is not inherently “bad.” It is a vital biological process that keeps us alive. However, when it becomes chronic and dysregulated, it can contribute to the development of many modern diseases. 👉 The goal is not to eliminate inflammation—but to support the body’s ability to regulate it effectively . If you are looking for nutritional guidance to improve your daily nutrition that supports your health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition advice at info@katrinpeo.com

In recent years, the connection between nutrition and health has become increasingly personalised. A new large-scale study published in Nature adds powerful evidence to this shift—highlighting the critical role of the gut microbiome in shaping our metabolic health. Here is a short summary from the study. This study analysed data from over 34,000 people across the US and UK , combining: dietary intake gut microbiome composition metabolic health markers It identified specific gut bacteria associated with better or worse cardiometabolic health . Key findings: Certain microbial species are consistently linked to favourable health markers  (e.g. better blood sugar, better blood lipids, lower inflammation) Other microbial species are linked to higher disease risk These microbial patterns are strongly associated with BMI and disease status Importantly, diet can shift the microbiome , improving health markers over time 👉 In simple terms: What you eat shapes your gut bacteria—and your gut bacteria influence your health. 👉 You can read the full study here: Read the original study in Nature. I have written a numerous articles in the past on gut microbiome and health. You can find them here . Why This Matters: Cardiometabolic Diseases Are Rising Globally Cardiometabolic diseases—especially: cardiovascular disease (CVD) type 2 diabetes (T2D) are the leading causes of illness and death globally . They are strongly linked to: unhealthy diet physical inactivity excess body weight chronic inflammation tobacco use harmful use of alcohol According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) , an estimated 19.8 million people died from CVDs in 2022, representing approximately 32% of all global deaths (of these deaths, 85% were due to heart attack and stroke). And as of 2022, 830 million people were living with diabetes, according to WHO . Below are some key facts from the World Health Organisation about overweight and obesity , which is a true concern. In 2022, 2.5 billion (43%) adults (18 years and older) were overweight and 1 in 8 people (16%) in the world were living with obesity. Worldwide adult obesity has more than doubled since 1990, and adolescent obesity has quadrupled. Over 390 million children and adolescents aged 5–19 years were overweight in 2022, including 160 million who were living with obesity. In 2024, 35 million children under the age of 5 were overweight. The Situation in Estonia: A Growing Health Concern Data from Estonian and international sources (including TAI and OECD profiles ) show a concerning trend: Overweight and obesity More than half of adults  in Estonia are overweight or obese Around 1 in 5 adults is obese   Cardiovascular disease Estonia has one of the highest CVD incidence rates in the EU ~ 1,741 cases per 100,000 people  annually Type 2 diabetes Around 80% of people with diabetes are overweight or obese   Tens of thousands of adults are living with diabetes in Estonia. Merely in 2024 there were 5,933 new cases of Type 2 diabetes registered in Estonia . 👉 This aligns closely with the study’s message: Diet, weight, and metabolic health are deeply interconnected—and the gut microbiome may be a missing link. The Missing Piece: Your Gut Microbiome The gut microbiome consists of trillions of microorganisms that: help digest food produce beneficial compounds (like short-chain fatty acids) regulate inflammation influence metabolism and insulin sensitivity Research shows that: microbiome composition differs between lean and obese individuals it can influence energy balance, fat storage and appetite   What’s New in This Study? What makes this Nature  study unique is its scale and consistency. It introduces a “microbiome health ranking” , identifying: bacteria linked to good health bacteria linked to disease risk Interestingly: Many beneficial microbes are still unknown to science Less healthy profiles often include well-known inflammatory species   👉 This highlights how much we still have to learn—and how important this field is becoming. Can You Improve Your Microbiome? Yes—Through Diet One of the most encouraging findings: 👉 The microbiome is modifiable. Dietary interventions in the study showed: increase in beneficial bacteria decrease in harmful species improvement in health markers over time Practical Takeaways (What This Means for You) Based on this study and broader research: 1. Focus on dietary quality—not just calories Whole foods matter more than calorie counting. Important is to eat a balanced diet that consists of vegetables, fruits, berries, legumes, whole grains, mushrooms, nuts, seeds, fish, meat, eggs and dairy. 2. Feed your gut bacteria Prioritise: fibre-rich foods (vegetables, legumes, whole grains) polyphenol-rich foods (berries, nuts, seeds) 3. Support your gut bacteria Add: fermented foods and drinks to your diet to support the growth of beneficial bacteria in your gut 4. Reduce ultra-processed foods These are strongly linked to poor microbiome profiles and cardiometabolic risk 4. Reduce your intake of added sugar High sugar consumption drives dysbiosis—an increase in pathogenic or pro-inflammatory bacteria and a decrease in beneficial ones. Learn more from this article what's recommended daily limits of added sugar from foods and drinks . 5. Think long-term Microbiome changes happen over time—not overnight A Shift Toward Personalised Nutrition This study supports a growing movement: 👉 “One-size-fits-all diets don’t work for everyone.” The future of nutrition is likely to include: microbiome testing personalised dietary recommendations precision nutrition strategies Final Thoughts This new research reinforces something fundamental: 👉 Your daily food choices are one of the most powerful tools you have to influence your health. If you want to make changes to your diet to support your overall health, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

Protein is one of the three main macronutrients and plays an essential role in building and repairing tissues, supporting immune function, and producing enzymes and hormones. Adequate protein intake is particularly important for muscle maintenance, muscle growth, and healthy weight management . High-protein foods can help increase satiety, stabilize blood sugar levels, and preserve lean muscle mass during weight loss. Research suggests that individuals who are physically active or trying to build muscle may benefit from consuming approximately 1.2–1.6 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day , especially when combined with resistance training. Below are some nutritious and protein-rich foods that can support muscle recovery, muscle growth, and overall health. 1. Eggs Eggs are considered one of the most nutritious protein sources because they contain all nine essential amino acids , making them a complete protein. Protein:  about 13 g per 100 g Eggs also contain important nutrients such as vitamin B12, selenium, and choline, which support brain health and metabolism. 2. Chicken Breast Chicken breast is one of the most popular protein sources for athletes and people aiming to lose weight because it is high in protein and relatively low in fat. Protein:  about 30–32 g per 100 g It is also versatile and easy to include in a wide variety of meals. 3. Salmon Salmon provides high-quality protein and is also rich in omega-3 fatty acids , which support heart health and may help reduce inflammation. Protein:  about 20–25 g per 100 g Omega-3 fats are also beneficial for brain health and recovery after exercise. 4. Greek Yoghurt Greek yogurt contains more protein than regular yogurt and is a convenient high-protein breakfast or snack. Protein:  about 10 g per 100 g It also contains probiotics that support gut health. 5. Cottage Cheese Cottage cheese is a protein-rich dairy food that contains casein protein , which digests slowly and can help keep you full for longer. Protein:  about 11 g per 100 g Because of its slow digestion, cottage cheese is sometimes recommended as an evening snack for muscle recovery. 6. Lentils Lentils are one of the best plant-based sources of protein and are also high in fibre, iron, and folate. Protein:  about 9 g per 100 g cooked The fiber content helps support gut health and can improve satiety. 7. Chickpeas Chickpeas are nutrient-dense legumes that provide plant protein, fiber, and important minerals such as magnesium and iron. Protein:  about 8–9 g per 100 g They are commonly used in dishes like hummus, salads, and stews. 8. Tofu Tofu is made from soybeans and is a popular protein source in vegetarian and vegan diets. Protein:  about 8 g per 100 g It is also a source of calcium and iron and can easily absorb the flavour of other ingredients. 9. Tempeh Tempeh is a fermented soy product that contains more protein than tofu and provides beneficial probiotics from fermentation. Protein:  about 19 g per 100 g It is also rich in fibre and micronutrients. 10. Almonds Almonds are a nutrient-dense snack that provides plant protein, healthy fats, fiber, and vitamin E. Protein:  about 21 g per 100 g Because nuts are calorie-dense, they are best consumed in moderate portions. 11. Pumpkin Seeds Pumpkin seeds are among the most protein-rich seeds and also provide zinc, magnesium, and healthy fats. Protein:  about 30 g per 100 g They can easily be added to salads, yogurt, smoothies, or oatmeal. 12. Hemp Seeds Hemp seeds are a highly nutritious plant food containing protein, fiber, and beneficial omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Protein:  about 31 g per 100 g They also contain essential amino acids and can be easily added to smoothies, yogurt, or salads. Why Protein Can Help With Weight Loss Higher-protein diets may support weight management in several ways: they increase feelings of fullness they help preserve lean muscle mass during calorie restriction they can stabilise blood sugar levels they may increase thermogenesis (calories burned during digestion) For best results, protein intake should be combined with balanced nutrition, regular physical activity, and adequate sleep . Final Thoughts Protein-rich foods are important for maintaining muscle mass, supporting metabolism, and promoting overall health. A balanced diet that includes both animal and plant protein sources  can help ensure adequate intake of essential amino acids and other nutrients. If you are looking to receive nutritional counselling to improve your diet, to have the meals balanced in order to support healthy weight, to have the energy you need to do things you love- then do reach out to me for nutritional counselling at info@katrinpeo.com .

I hardly know any woman in my age who has not had urinary tract infection (UTI) in their life. Many of us end up having them on a frequent basis. Around 50–60% of women experience at least one UTI in their lifetime , and recurrent infections are common. Having been there myself, I want to share my learnings over the years and what I have learnt through experience and literature. I hope the below helps women to consider different ways for healing from UTIs or at least have conversation with their doctor to talk about different solutions. Types of UTIs There are different types of UTI: urethritis and cystitis. Urethritis is an infection in the urethra, which can cause nausea, vomiting, pain in the upper back and side, shaking and chills, high fever. Both bacteria like E.coli and viruses can cause urethritis. Cystitis is a bladder infection, which is a lower urinary tract infection. You may experience discomfort in your lower stomach, pelvic pain, blood in urine, painful and frequent urination. Bladder infection occurs when the bacteria is present in urine. Since organs are all connected, bacteria can also travel up and affect the kidneys. You may experience burning sensation when urinating and discharge. What are the causes of UTIs There are several factors that increase the risk of developing UTIs. Having the knowhow what causes it, can help to prevent them in the future. Why do women get UTIs more frequently than men? Women have much shorter urethra than men, therefore the bacteria can end up in the urinary tract and blood. 90% of the infections related to bladder, kidneys, urethra are related to E. coli bacteria, which lives normally harmlessly in our intestines, both in humans and animals. The problem is when the bacteria gets from the bowels into the urinary tract. Birth control pills (because how oestrogen affects the pH) and antibiotics taken in life shift the urinary pH and the intestinal pH, which has a big impact on urinary tract and bladder, allowing the bacteria more easily to grow. Sexual intercourse and spermicidal contraceptives. Sexual activity can move bacteria from vaginal cavity into the urethral opening. After intercourse most women have a significant number of bacteria in their urine and though body tries to get rid of the bacteria via urine, some of the bacteria may remain and cause infection. Spermicides and condoms may irritate the skin and increase the growth of bacteria in surrounding tissues. Catheters- when you need to have a catheter placed, it can develop biofilm on catheter allowing for bacteria to develop and cause an infection Pregnant women are more prone to having UTIs- often women develop their first UTI during their pregnancy because of the hormonal changes and the shifts in the position of the urinary tract Having a suppressed immune system puts you at higher risk developing UTI, because your body is not able to fight off the bacteria that well People with diabetes, where body's ability to control blood sugar is impaired, also increases the risks for developing UTIs What are the symptoms of UTI? They can be extremely uncomfortable and may include: painful urination pressure or burning sensation in the bladder a need to urinate more frequently abdominal pain fatigue and weakness strong-smelling pee urine that's cloudy or appears bright pink or red How is UTI diagnosed? You can easily do a home test with urinary test strips, where you can see elevated nitrites and leukocytes with UTI. Sometimes, especially if you have had reoccurring UTIs, your doctor might order a urine test, where the lab actually analysis the different bacteria in your urine and also see the severity of the bladder infection. Treatment of UTIs Conventional treatment for UTIs Current standard treatment for bacterial urinary tract infections is antibiotics, which help eliminate the infection and prevent complications such as kidney infections. At the same time, lifestyle and nutritional strategies may support the body during recovery and help reduce the risk of recurrent infections. In Estonia, where I live, doctors I have been to also recommend to drink uva ursi tea, take d-mannose, drink more water or recommend some other over the counter supplements, like Soluro Duo . But often women end up being prescribed antibiotics. The down-side of antibiotics is that, it might help you in the short-term, but the more frequently you have UTIs, the harder it is to have the infection cured with antibiotics and often you are being prescribed different antibiotics as the one that you took before, might not work. And over time you can start to experience antibiotics resistance, which means the bacteria (E.coli, the primary bacteria responsible for the UTIs), is able to defeat the drug designed to kill them. Every time you go on antibiotics, you damage your gut microbiome (reducing the good flora in your intestinal tract), your mitochondria (your body's cells powerhouses) and the microbiota in your vaginal cavity. Antibiotics can also cause yeast infections as when good bacteria is wiped out, it's harder to keep the yeast under control. So then doctor might prescribe you anti-fungal after an antibiotic. And you end up on this reoccurring UTI rollercoaster ride. How to treat UTIs naturally? There are several home remedies for UTIs you can try to stop the invasion of bacteria becoming a reoccurring problem and things you can do to avoid UTIs in the first place. I am going to list here different things you can try. And based on experience, I would really recommend you try the natural remedies first before deciding together with the doctor whether you need antibiotics. Sometimes the infection is so severe, that going on a course of antibiotics is necessary, but definitely worth to try other non-invasive remedies first. Drinking adequate amount of water , herbal tea, which helps to flush the bacteria out from your body. Drinking sufficient water may help flush bacteria from the urinary tract. Increasing daily water intake has been shown in some studies to reduce the recurrence of UTIs in women prone to infections. Urinating often and when the urge rises Urinating after sexual intercourse Wiping properly from front to back when going to toilet- this is a good tip to teach to young girls from an early age Wear loose-fitting clothes, allowing the area around urethra to stay dry (tight jeans, nylon underwear can be problematic. Also don't use perfumed pantyliners if using any) Avoid using spermicides and use lubricated condoms that don't contain spermicides Taking D-mannose. D-mannose is a naturally occurring sugar found in some fruits. It may help prevent certain bacteria, such as E. coli , from attaching to the urinary tract lining. Some studies suggest it may help reduce recurrent UTIs, although systematic reviews note that current evidence is still limited and more high-quality studies are needed . Consuming probiotic food and/or taking good quality probiotic Using vaginal probiotics to improve the microflora and avoiding bubble baths and irritating soaps in the genital area. Drinking uva ursi tea or taking uva ursi tincture Drinking parsley tea Eating garlic as it's antimicromial and anti-inflammatory Consuming ginger in your drink or food Drinking non-sweetened pure cranberry juice, diluted with water Taking Echinacea or Pau D'arco to improve the immune system Eating regularly foods high in vitamin C or taking Vitamin C supplement (makes urine more acidic) Making sure you avoid sugary processed foods and drinks, high carbs in your diet, alcohol Avoid getting cold on your feet, lower back and stomach area Reducing stress Improving sleep Always discuss the birth control options with your gynaecologist, as birth control pills which are often prescribed can cause issues and imbalances in the gut, causing bloating, diarrhoea, constipation etc. Using antibacterial essential oils diluted with carrier oil, topically- oregano, clove, myrrh, rosemary, basil While diet alone cannot cure a urinary tract infection, nutrient-rich foods may support the immune system and overall recovery. Helpful foods may include: Berries (cranberries, blueberries)  – rich in polyphenols that may help prevent bacterial adhesion Vegetables (broccoli, leafy greens, carrots)  – provide antioxidants and vitamin C Fermented foods (yoghurt, kefir)  – contain probiotics that may support a healthy microbiome Garlic  – contains compounds with antimicrobial properties Adequate protein (fish, chicken, legumes)  – supports immune and tissue repair Cranberries are widely discussed in UTI prevention, but evidence shows they are more useful for prevention than for treating an active infection . Cranberries contain compounds called proanthocyanidins (PACs)  that may help prevent certain bacteria, particularly E. coli , from attaching to the bladder wall. This mechanism may help reduce the risk of recurrent urinary tract infections. However, current evidence suggests that cranberry products are more helpful for prevention than for treating an active infection . During a UTI, some foods and drinks may irritate the bladder and worsen symptoms. These may include: caffeine alcohol spicy foods highly acidic drinks artificial sweeteners Gut connection with UTIs If you have bacteria or yeast imbalances in the urinary tract or vaginal tract, you probably have issues in the digestive tract. You might want to look deeper into intestinal tract, if you have any underlying issues there. By fixing the gut, you help to improve the immune system in the vaginal area as well. Uncomplicated UTIs usually resolves within days, especially if you follow the above recommendations. This article is for educational purposes only and does not replace medical advice. If you experience symptoms of a urinary tract infection such as burning urination, fever, or persistent pain, consult a healthcare professional. If you need help and guidance on how to improve your diet and lifestyle, don't hesitate to reach out to me for personalised nutrition counselling and health coaching at info@katrinpeo.com .

In recent years, medications targeting the hormones GLP-1 and GIP  have gained significant attention for their ability to support weight loss and improve blood sugar control . These medications are increasingly used in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes , and for many individuals they can be a powerful medical tool that improves health and quality of life. At the same time, their rapid rise in popularity has raised many questions: What exactly are GLP-1 and GIP medications? How do they work in the body? Who prescribes them? What role do nutrition and lifestyle changes play? Why I Am Writing About GLP-1 and GIP Medications? As a nutrition counsellor , I often hear questions and discussions about these medications. Many people are curious about how they work and whether they might be appropriate for them. I have attended several seminars and professional training courses where weight-loss medications were discussed as part of the broader topic of obesity treatment and metabolic health . Based on what I have learned from these training courses and from current scientific literature, I wanted to share a clear and balanced overview  of this topic. The goal of this article is not to provide medical advice, but to explain what GLP-1 and GLP-1/GIP medications are, how they work in the body, and why nutrition and lifestyle still play an important role when these medications are used. This article provides a general overview of these medications, their physiological effects, potential benefits, and important considerations related to nutrition and lifestyle . Note:  This article is intended for educational purposes only and does not replace medical advice. Weight-loss medications must always be prescribed and supervised by a qualified physician. Obesity Treatment Is Multifactorial Modern obesity treatment rarely relies on a single intervention. Instead, it usually involves a comprehensive and individualised approach , which may include: nutrition therapy physical activity behavioural counselling pharmacotherapy (medications) medical devices or procedures bariatric surgery in some cases Medications such as GLP-1 receptor agonists and dual GLP-1/GIP agonists  are therefore one component of obesity treatment — not a replacement for lifestyle changes. What Is GLP-1? GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1)  is a hormone naturally produced in the body that plays an important role in regulating blood sugar, digestion, and appetite . It is released from specialised cells in the intestine—called enteroendocrine L-cells —in response to food intake. After a meal, GLP-1 levels in the bloodstream can increase two to four times , triggering several metabolic processes that help the body manage energy and nutrient intake. GLP-1 contributes to metabolic regulation by: stimulating insulin secretion reducing glucagon release helping regulate blood sugar levels slowing stomach emptying increasing feelings of fullness after eating Interestingly, natural GLP-1 has a very short half-life of only 1–2 minutes , because it is rapidly broken down by the enzyme DPP-4 . Despite this short lifespan, it plays a powerful role in appetite regulation and metabolic health. Gut Hormones and Appetite Regulation Although GLP-1 has recently gained widespread attention due to modern weight-loss medications , it is important to remember that it is part of the body’s natural appetite-regulation system . Inside the digestive tract are specialised hormone-producing cells known as enteroendocrine cells . While they make up only about 1–2% of the intestinal lining , they produce a wide range of signalling molecules that help regulate digestion, metabolism, and hunger. Among the most important of these hormones are GLP-1  and peptide YY (PYY) , both produced by L-cells in the intestine. These hormones work together to help regulate appetite and digestion. They communicate with the brain to signal that we have eaten enough, slow the rate at which food leaves the stomach, and support digestive processes needed to break down nutrients. PYY , in particular, travels through the bloodstream to the brain where it contributes to feelings of satiety and reduced appetite. Importantly, the release of these hormones is influenced by what we eat . Meals that contain adequate protein, fibre, and healthy fats  tend to stimulate greater release of GLP-1 and PYY. In addition, beneficial gut bacteria produce short-chain fatty acids  when they ferment dietary fibre. These compounds help support the activity of enteroendocrine cells and may further promote the production of appetite-regulating hormones. In other words, the body already has built-in biological mechanisms that help regulate hunger and fullness . While medications can enhance these pathways, balanced meals that include protein, fibre-rich plant foods, and healthy fats support the body’s natural satiety signals. You can find multiple articles on protein , healthy fats and fibre in my blog, why they are important for healthy functioning of our bodies, how much we need and the food sources. 👉 I have also created two downloadable resources on how to get 30g of protein in one meal and 30g of fibre in a day . What Is GIP? GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide)  is another hormone involved in metabolism. It is produced by K-cells in the small intestine  and released when we eat, particularly in response to carbohydrates and fats . GIP contributes to metabolic regulation by: stimulating insulin secretion helping regulate blood glucose levels after meals influencing how nutrients are stored in the body In fact, GIP is responsible for around 60–80% of the insulin response after eating , making it one of the key hormones in the body’s incretin system . How GLP-1 and GIP Medications Work Medications have been developed to mimic or enhance the effects of these hormones . GLP-1 receptor agonists and dual GLP-1/GIP agonists can: stimulate insulin secretion suppress glucagon release slow stomach emptying interact with appetite-regulating centres in the brain increase feelings of fullness As a result, many people experience: reduced appetite earlier satiety during meals fewer food cravings reduced “food noise” or constant thoughts about eating Studies show these medications may reduce daily energy intake by approximately 16–39% compared with placebo. Who Prescribes These Medications? GLP-1 and GLP-1/GIP medications are prescription medicines . They are typically prescribed by: endocrinologists diabetologists obesity medicine specialists general practitioners trained in obesity management family doctors (especially for repeated prescriptions) Doctors may consider prescribing these medications when: BMI is 30 or higher , or BMI is 27 or higher with weight-related health conditions , such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, or metabolic syndrome. The decision to start medication is always individualised and patient-centred , taking into account overall health, medical history, lifestyle factors, and treatment goals. These Medications Can Be Life-Changing For people living with severe obesity , GLP-1 and GIP medications can significantly improve health outcomes. They may help reduce risks associated with: type 2 diabetes cardiovascular disease fatty liver disease sleep apnea mobility limitations For some individuals, medication can even reduce the need for bariatric surgery . For these patients, weight-loss medications are not simply cosmetic treatments—they can be an important medical therapy . Potential Side Effects Like all medications, GLP-1 and GIP drugs can have side effects. The most common ones involve the digestive system and may include: nausea vomiting constipation diarrhoea digestive discomfort These symptoms are most common when starting treatment or increasing the dose . Gradual dose increases are often used to help reduce these side effects. You can find more information about the side effects of these weight-loss medications here . Below is a general overview of current weight-loss medications. Weight-Loss Medications Medication Active Ingredient Mechanism of Action EU Status Side Effects Wegovy Semaglutide GLP-1 receptor agonist Approved for weight loss; 7.2 mg dose under review Nausea, digestive tract issues Saxenda Liraglutide GLP-1 receptor agonist Approved for weight loss Nausea, digestive tract issues Mounjaro / Zepbound Tirzepatide GLP-1 + GIP receptor agonist Approved for type 2 diabetes treatment; under review for weight loss Nausea, gastrointestinal side effects Ozempic / Rybelsus Semaglutide GLP-1 receptor agonist Approved for type 2 diabetes treatment Nausea Mysimba / Contrave Naltrexone + Bupropion Central nervous system effect and reduction of hunger signals Approved for weight loss Mostly mild to moderate gastrointestinal side effects Orlistat (Xenical / Alli) Orlistat Gastrointestinal lipase inhibitor Approved for weight loss (Alli- over-the-counter drug). Xenical (prescription drug)- for type 2 diabetes and weight loss Steatorrhea, fatty diarrhea Source: Tallinn Healthy University of Applied Sciences, Laine Parts Reduced Appetite and Nutrient Intake One of the key effects of GLP-1 medications is a significant reduction in appetite . While this contributes to weight loss, it can also lead to lower overall nutrient intake . Studies suggest that energy intake may decrease by 16–39% during treatment . If diet quality is not carefully managed, this may increase the risk of nutrient deficiencies , especially when daily quality food intake drops below approximately: 1200 kcal/day for women 1800 kcal/day for men Nutrients that may become insufficient include: iron calcium magnesium zinc vitamins A, D, E, and K vitamin B1 vitamin B12 vitamin C Possible signs of deficiency may include fatigue, hair loss, muscle weakness, poor wound healing, or unusual bruising. You can learn more about the important roles of all vitamins and minerals in our bodies from my downloadable resources . Muscle Loss During Weight Loss Another important consideration is loss of muscle mass during rapid weight loss . Research shows that during significant weight loss: about 60% may come from fat mass up to 40% may come from fat-free mass , including muscle Muscle loss may be more likely in individuals who: consume insufficient protein through their diet are physically inactive are older adults are peri- or postmenopausal women Maintaining sufficient muscle mass is important for: metabolic health strength and mobility long-term weight maintenance healthy ageing Protecting Muscle Mass: Protein and Exercise Two factors are particularly important during weight loss treatment. Adequate protein intake During active weight loss, protein intake may need to increase to roughly: 1.2–1.6 g of protein per kg of body weight per day. For example, if your body weight is 90kg, you should consume 108g-144g of protein from food sources a day. Good protein sources include: fish and seafood eggs dairy products such as unflavoured yoghurt (for example Greek, Skyr etc) or cottage cheese legumes and beans tofu, tempeh nuts and seeds lean poultry Strength training Resistance exercise is essential for preserving muscle mass. Many experts recommend: strength training at least 3 times per week 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity per week Exercise also improves insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular health, and metabolic function. Nutrition Matters Even when medications reduce appetite, diet quality remains extremely important . A nutrient-dense diet during treatment should emphasise: vegetables and fruits whole grains legumes nuts and seeds quality protein sources healthy fats such as extra virgin olive oil, avocado, nuts and seeds It is recommended to limit: refined carbohydrates and processed grains (white flour products (pasta, white bread), white rice etc) sugary drinks (soft drinks (Coca-Cola, Sprite, Fanta, flavoured waters, ice tea etc) and foods with added sugar (flavoured yoghurts, ice-cream, donuts, ready-made sauces) sweet and savoury snacks (cakes, cookies, chips) ultra-processed foods processed meats (viennas, hams, sausages, salami etc) frequent fast-food consumption (burgers, pizza, fries etc) Eating small, regular meals  may also help reduce nausea and support adequate nutrient intake. Are These Medications a Long-Term Treatment? Many pharmaceutical manufacturers suggest that GLP-1 medications are designed to be used long-term (potentially lifelong treatment)  to maintain weight loss. However, in practice, many people stop treatment within 1–2 years , often due to cost, side effects, or other factors. Weight regain can occur if good nutrition and lifestyle changes are not maintained . Because long-term data are still developing, treatment decisions should always be made carefully and under medical supervision . Who Should Not Use These Medications? GLP-1 and GLP-1/GIP drugs are not suitable for everyone. Absolute contraindications may include: personal or family history of medullary thyroid cancer multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome type 2 (MEN-2) severe gastrointestinal diseases such as gastroparesis known allergy to the medication Additional caution may be needed in people with: history of pancreatitis gallbladder disease inflammatory bowel disease diabetic retinopathy pregnancy or breastfeeding certain eating disorders unstable mental health conditions For these reasons, any decision to start weight-loss medication should be made in consultation with a qualified medical specialist. A Holistic Approach to Weight Management GLP-1 and GIP medications represent an important advancement in the treatment of obesity and metabolic disease. For many people they can lead to meaningful health improvements . However, the most effective long-term approach usually combines: appropriate medical treatment evidence-based nutrition guidance physical activity behavioural and lifestyle support In other words, sustainable health changes rarely come from a single solution—they come from a comprehensive approach that supports the whole person. While medications can amplify these hormonal signals, supporting the body’s natural appetite-regulation systems through healthy nutrition and lifestyle remains an important foundation for metabolic health. Nutrition Support If you are severely overweight, considering weight-loss medications, or living with chronic health conditions , it is usually recommended to seek guidance from a registered dietitian or nutritional therapist  who can provide specialised nutrition care. If you are slightly overweight and do not have chronic health conditions , but would like support improving your nutrition and lifestyle to support healthy weight management and reduce the risk of conditions such as diabetes or high blood pressure, working with a qualified nutrition counsellor  can help ensure your diet supports both health and long-term wellbeing. You can contact me to book a consultation at info@katrinpeo.com . References Wilding JPH et al. (2021). Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity.  New England Journal of Medicine . Jastreboff AM et al. (2022). Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity.  New England Journal of Medicine. Holst JJ (2019). The Physiology of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1.  Physiological Reviews. Secher A et al. (2014). Central effects of GLP-1 in appetite regulation.  Nature Reviews Endocrinology.

A nourishing, balanced breakfast for slow weekends or calm weekday mornings. If you’re looking for a breakfast that feels a little special but is still simple, nourishing, and balanced — this Baked oats with raspberry and ricotta  is a beautiful choice. It’s perfect for a relaxed weekend morning, but it also works during the week if you have about 30 minutes to spare at home. The recipe serves four people, making it ideal for families or for meal-prepping a couple of breakfasts ahead. What I love most about this recipe is that it combines: Complex carbohydrates from wholegrain oats Protein from eggs, milk, and ricotta Healthy fats from almonds Fibre and antioxidants from raspberries A naturally sweet, satisfying breakfast that supports steady energy and satiety — something I always emphasise in balanced meals. Why You’ll Love This Baked Oats Recipe Naturally sweetened with banana High in fibre Good source of protein No refined sugar Easy to prepare Suitable for meal prep The combination of creamy ricotta and slightly tart raspberries makes this dish feel indulgent — yet it is built from real, whole ingredients. Baked Oats with Raspberry and Ricotta Serves 4 Ingredients 2 bananas 200 g (about 2 cups) wholegrain oats 2 eggs, beaten 400 ml milk (I used cow’s milk, but you can use any milk of your choice) 1 tsp vanilla extract 1 tsp baking powder A pinch of salt 150 g raspberries (fresh or frozen; frozen work perfectly when berries are out of season) 100 g almond flakes 125 g ricotta To serve: Peanut butter or almond butter Instructions Preheat the oven to 180°C (350°F). Mash the bananas in a large bowl with a fork. Add the beaten eggs, milk, oats, almond flakes, baking powder, salt, and vanilla extract. Mix everything well until combined. Pour the mixture into a baking dish. Scatter the raspberries on top. Spoon tablespoons of ricotta over the surface. Bake for about 30 minutes, until set and lightly golden. Let it cool slightly before serving. Serve with a spoonful of peanut butter or almond butter for extra creaminess and healthy fats. Nutritional Notes This baked oats dish provides a well-balanced macronutrient profile: Carbohydrates  from oats and bananas for sustained energy Protein  from eggs, milk, and ricotta to support satiety and muscle maintenance Healthy fats  from almonds and nut butter Additional fibre and polyphenols  from raspberries If you prefer a higher-protein version, you can serve with unflavoured Greek yoghurt on the side. Variations Swap raspberries for blueberries, blackberries or chopped apples Use plant-based milk if needed Add cinnamon or cardamom for extra warmth (especially if you use apples) Add chia seeds or flaxseeds to the mixture before baking for additional fibre This is the kind of breakfast that feels comforting, yet supports stable blood sugar and lasting energy — something especially valuable for busy days. If you try it, let me know how it turns out. You can find more breakfast recipes in my blog .

Many people focus on what  they eat: carbohydrates, protein, fat, calories, fibre, and what dietary supplements they take. But an equally important question is often ignored: When do we eat? And just as importantly: how do we eat? Our digestive system is not a machine that works at the same intensity all day long. Digestion, appetite, hormone activity, and nutrient absorption are all influenced by our body’s natural rhythms. In this final article of the digestive health series I have been covering, we’ll explore how satiety, circadian rhythms, meal timing, and sleep  influence digestion, blood sugar balance, weight management, and overall wellbeing. Satiety: Why Fullness Doesn’t Happen Immediately Many people assume that the moment they stop feeling hungry, they have eaten enough. But physiologically, satiety develops in stages. Partial satiety during eating During a meal, the body creates only a partial feeling of fullness , which does not always reflect whether the body’s nutritional needs have been met. This is because satiety signals depend on: stomach stretching gut hormone release (such as GLP-1, CCK, PYY) blood sugar response nervous system feedback sensory experience (taste, smell, satisfaction) True satiety comes later The final and complete satiety signal appears 1–1.5 hours after eating . This is why many nutrition experts recommend stopping eating when you still feel slightly capable of eating more, instead of waiting until you feel “stuffed”. Eating too quickly often leads to overeating simply because the body has not yet had time to send the “I am full” message. Eating Slowly Supports Digestion and Satiety Satiety develops best when we: eat slowly chew properly take breaks between food bites eat in a calm environment Chewing is not just a mechanical step. It triggers digestive enzymes, stimulates saliva production, and activates the nervous system’s “rest and digest” mode. Eating food you dislike creates stress Forcing yourself to eat food you don’t enjoy may reduce digestive efficiency. Stress hormones influence stomach acid secretion, gut motility, and enzyme activity. The body benefits most from food that is eaten: with a healthy appetite in a pleasant environment at a moderate pace Long Gaps Between Meals Can Promote Weight Gain Skipping meals is often seen as a way to reduce calorie intake. However, very long gaps between meals can create metabolic stress for the body. When a person eats too little during the day, they often return home extremely hungry and eat quickly and excessively in the evening. This may lead to: rapid blood sugar spikes stronger insulin response in the body to get the glycose into the cells increased fat storage Insulin and the pancreas The pancreas produces insulin, a hormone that helps glucose enter the cells to be used as energy. When meal timing is chaotic and overeating happens frequently, insulin-producing cells can become overworked. Over time, insulin regulation becomes less efficient. If insulin function becomes impaired, the body may shift toward converting glucose into fat storage more easily. This is one reason why irregular eating patterns and large meal gaps can contribute to weight gain. Biorhythms and Digestion The human body is built around rhythms. Our need for food depends on: physical activity emotional state stress level illness sleep quality hormonal fluctuations For example: a normal breakfast might feel perfect on a regular workday but on an exam day or stressful morning, digestion may be disrupted and nausea or diarrhoea may appear heavy lunches can impair productivity for people doing intense mental work physically demanding work requires more energy-dense meals What Are Biorhythms? Biorhythms are inherited biological patterns developed through evolution. They appear as rhythmic repetitions in body functions. Based on their length, biorhythms can be divided into: Short cycles (seconds) heartbeat rhythm breathing rhythm brain electrical activity Medium cycles (hours) circadian rhythm (24-hour rhythm) Long cycles (days, months, years) weekly cycles menstrual cycle seasonal rhythms life stages digestive rhythm Circadian Rhythm: The Body’s Internal Clock Circadian rhythm is the body’s 24-hour biological rhythm, controlled by complex cellular mechanisms and gene expression. It influences: blood pressure body temperature metabolism sleep and wakefulness appetite hormones digestion The body functions best when it can rely on predictability . Regular routines support the body’s ability to regulate digestion and metabolism efficiently: waking up at a similar time daily eating meals at consistent times having daily movement and rest going to sleep around the same time Research shows that circadian rhythms have an affect on health outcomes and metabolic processes. ( Nature, 2018 ) Circadian Rhythm and Body Weight Studies suggest that successful weight management is not only about calories, but also about timing and of course food quality (unprocessed vs. ultra-processed foods). Eating most calories during the day—when we are active—supports metabolism. Eating late at night or before sleep may impair weight loss even if total calorie intake is reduced. Animal studies show that meal timing can be more important than calorie intake when it comes to weight changes. In experiments, mice fed during their natural active period lost weight more effectively compared to mice eating the same calories during rest periods. Scientists believe meal timing may influence circadian regulation and even lifespan. Research indicates that timing food intake in tune with our circadian rhythm can modestly reduce body weight and fat mass ( PubMed ). The Digestive Rhythm: Why Hunger Appears in Cycles Digestion has its own natural rhythm. Approximately every 3–3.5 hours , the muscles of the stomach, small intestine, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreatic ducts contract. This is accompanied by: increased digestive secretions increased bile flow activation of digestive glands This activation lasts around 20–30 minutes . If you eat, this rhythm pauses for about 3 hours while digestion focuses on processing food. Hunger is a biological signal During this activation period, hunger often appears naturally. If you eat during this window, digestion and absorption tend to work more efficiently. This is why hunger can be one of the best natural guides for meal timing. How Many Meals Per Day? Considering digestive rhythms, most adults benefit from 4–5 eating occasions  during their waking hours. This does not mean constant snacking. It means: structured main meals planned health supporting snacks when needed avoiding extreme hunger Practical Meal Timing Recommendations Here are practical guidelines to support digestion and circadian rhythms: Eat when you are truly hungry Hunger is a natural signal that the digestive system is ready. Allow time for eating main meal: 20–30 minutes smaller meal/snack: 15–20 minutes Learn your own digestive activation cycles Many people naturally become hungry every 3–4 hours. Avoid skipping meals Skipping meals can lead to overeating later and blood sugar instability. Match meals to your daily activity Mentally demanding days: prioritise complex carbohydrates like whole grains (oats, whole grain bread (rye, wheat), barley, brown rice, buckwheat, quinoa); legumes (lentils, chickpeas, beans, peas); sweet potatoes, potatoes with skin, pumpkin, corn; berries, apples, less ripe bananas; fibre rich foods , B vitamin rich foods ( you can find them in the Vitamins guide ) Physically demanding days: prioritise protein-rich meals with moderate carbohydrates and fats Follow the plate rule Aim for: half plate vegetables quarter of plate protein rich foods quarter of plate complex carbohydrates + healthy fats Avoid constant grazing Frequent snacking disrupts digestive rest cycles and can impair blood sugar stability. Sleep, Digestion, and Appetite Regulation Just like food and water, sleep is essential for recovery and health. Adults typically need around 7–8 hours of sleep , and children need even more. Sleep affects: appetite hormones (ghrelin and leptin) cravings insulin sensitivity digestion food choices Sleep deprivation increases cravings Lack of sleep increases appetite for: sugary foods , refined carbohydrates, high-calorie comfort foods (white bread, white pasta, white rice, breakfast cereals, crackers, pretzels, chips, pastries, cakes, ice cream, chocolates bars, cookies, pizza, burgers, fries etc. ) It can also shift eating later into the evening, which further disrupts circadian rhythm and metabolic balance. Sleep problems are linked to increased risk of: weight gain high blood pressure type 2 diabetes cardiovascular disease mood disorders weakened immunity Melatonin and Deep Sleep Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland and helps regulate sleep. In sleep disorders, nighttime melatonin levels may be reduced. During deep sleep, testosterone and growth hormone levels increase—this is why deep sleep is essential for recovery and development, especially in young people. Serotonin, Digestion, and Rhythms Serotonin is often called the “happiness hormone,” but it also plays a key role in digestion. A large portion of serotonin (around 90%) is found in the digestive tract. It supports: gut motility (peristalsis) digestive secretions insulin release intestinal movement When serotonin levels are optimal, digestion tends to be more effective and people often experience: satisfaction calmness improved mood a sense of wellbeing after eating Serotonin is a precursor for melatonin. And in order for the body to produce hormone serotonin, it needs amino acid tryptophan from food as well as B-vitamin rich foods. You can learn more about serotonin in this article. Shift work and serotonin disruption Studies show that people working night shifts often have lower serotonin levels than daytime workers. Digestive biorhythms are strongly connected to light exposure and circadian rhythm, which explains why digestion is often disrupted during night work. Night Shifts and Nutrition: A Special Challenge People who work night shifts have higher risk of: cardiovascular disease blood pressure fluctuations elevated cholesterol higher triglycerides obesity type 2 diabetes Night work disrupts the natural eating rhythm. The stomach and digestive system are not designed to handle heavy meals at night the same way they do during the day. Night shift workers often experience: appetite disturbances mood disturbances digestive issues (gas, diarrhoea, bloating) fatigue reduced concentration chronic stress Here are a few nutrition tips for shift workers If you work shifts, these principles are helpful: do not go to work hungry keep meal gaps under 4–5 hours include small healthy balanced snacks every 2–3 hours if needed drink water regularly avoid heavy meals during the night last larger meal should be at least 2 hours before sleep At night, it’s best to stick to light snacks such as: fruit yoghurt or kefir herbal tea wholegrain crisp bread small balanced sandwich (for example wholegrain bread, slice of salmon, slices of avocado and a salad leaf) homemade light salad Desynchronosis: When Body Rhythms Get Disrupted When biorhythms are disturbed, the body enters a state of stress called desynchronosis . This can happen due to: travel across different time zones night shift work irregular meal timing irregular sleep schedule chronic stress Symptoms may include: digestive problems (constipation or diarrhea) fatigue irritability sleep issues reduced immune resilience To reduce chronic stress and rhythm disruption, it is essential to support three main rhythms: 1. Eating rhythm Aim for 4–5 meals/snacks per day (structured, not constant snacking) 2. Sleep-wake rhythm Keep bedtime and wake-up time consistent 3. Work-rest rhythm Balance productivity with recovery Final Thoughts: Digestion Thrives on Rhythm Our digestive system works best when it feels safe, predictable, and supported. Satiety is not instant. Digestion is not constant. Hormones do not operate randomly. When we eat too fast, skip meals, or eat late at night, we are not just changing calorie intake—we are changing hormonal and metabolic signals. A healthy digestive system is supported by: regular meal timing mindful eating good sleep balanced nutrition stress reduction respecting hunger cues When we work with the body’s natural rhythms, digestion becomes smoother, blood sugar stabilises, and long-term wellbeing becomes easier to maintain. Series Summary This article completes my 5-part series exploring digestion and health: The Digestive System – A Remarkably Intelligent System Supporting Our Health Every Day How Nutrients Are Digested and Absorbed in the Body Diverse Nutrition and the Gut Microbiome – The Invisible Foundation of Health Appetite and Eating Behaviour Regulation – Why Do We Eat Even When We’re Not Hungry? The current article: Satiety, Circadian Rhythm, and Digestion: Why When You Eat Matters as Much as What You Eat If you want to improve your nutrition, change your daily habits to support your health and need guidance how to do it step by step, don't hesitate to reach out to me for nutrition counselling. You can learn more about my services here .

In spring, when we get the first dandelions and nettles in the garden I start with a routine to make a green drink boosting of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and serve it for myself, my husband and for our son as the second drink in the mornings (after a glass of water). Our daughter has not yet shown interest towards it as it looks too green for her. This green drink routine runs into early autumn till we still have fresh green ingredients to add into the drink. Then we typically change over to fermented drinks (like kombucha , beet kvass , coconut water kefir etc) in the mornings or warming teas or elixirs in the evenings during the cold months of the year. The below drink is good for supporting bodily detox systems, supports liver and gallbladder health, packs good amount of fibre for digestive health as well as vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (below I name just a few next to the ingredients). You can add and remove ingredients as you feel and as they are available. Fruit such as apple or pear gives the slight natural sweetness to the drink. Learn more here how and why you need to support your liver health . Revitalising Green Drink To Start Your Day Serves 3 Ingredients: 1 cup dandelion leaves (contains vitamins A, B9 (folate), C, K and minerals calcium, potassium) 2 stalks of celery (hydrating, contains vitamins A, C and K and minerals calcium, sodium and iron, also high in antioxidants) 1 cup kale leaves (contains carotenoids, vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, C, K, and minerals manganese, magnesium, iron and calcium) ½ cucumber (hydrating, contains vitamins C and K, minerals potassium, sodium) 1 apple or pear (contain vitamin C, K (pear) and potassium) 2.5cm piece fresh ginger root (adds a zesty kick and aids digestion as well as contains vitamins C, B6 and minerals calcium, iron, magnesium) 1 teaspoon black cumin seeds (boosts immunity and has anti-inflammatory properties, contain vitamins C and B6 and minerals (iron, magnesium, calcium, zinc, copper) Juice of 1 lemon (for a tangy touch and contains vitamin B6, C and minerals calcium, magnesium, iron) Filtered water (around 1 cup) I also add into the drink Elsavie fibre mixture if I have it available and 1/2 teaspoon of spirulina or chlorella. Instructions: Wash all ingredients thoroughly. If your blender is not high-powered, chop the dandelion leaves, celery, kale, cucumber, apple/pear, and ginger root into smaller pieces. Vitamix blends the ingredients nicely. Add all ingredients into a blender. Squeeze in the lemon juice. Blend until smooth. Pour into a glass and serve. Tip : Enjoy this drink first thing in the morning for a refreshing start to your day!

Beets are filled with phytonutrients called betalains that support liver detoxification. They contain fibre and vitamins and minerals like folate, manganese, copper, potassium, magnesium, vitamin C, vitamin B6 and iron- all important for heart health, bone health, brain health, energy production etc. Beet kvass is a probiotic drink, similar to kombucha or coconut water kefir - a perfect blood tonic and an excellent liver cleanser. Probiotics are important for our gut health, to increase the quantity of good bacteria. Beet kvass is made similarly to making sauerkraut , pickles, where you ferment beets in slightly salted brine for a few days. The taste is similar to fermented vegetables- lightly sour, a little bit sweet and salty. Learn more here why and how you can support your liver health . Easy beet kvass recipe Makes approx 500ml Ingredients 2 cups of cubed beets 2 tbsp of juice from your sauerkraut or other fermented vegetable. You can also add 2 tbsp of apple cider vinegar (make sure you use the one with 'mother' in it) 1/2 tbsp of sea salt or Himalayan salt 2 cups of filtered water I like to add boosters like grated fresh ginger and fresh turmeric when making the beet kvass. Instructions Wash the beets and place them in a 1l (1 quart) glass jar. Add the fermented vegetable juice or apple cider vinegar, together with the salt. If you like ginger and turmeric, add these grated in in there as well (a thumb size grated or so). Cover with a cheesecloth or with a coffee paper filter an an elastic band. Leave on the counter or in a warm place at room temperature for 2 days. Consume 1/4 cup or so daily as a blood tonic and to support your liver health. Stores in the fridge for 6-8 weeks. You can also mix some raisins or strawberries in there, or add some mint leaves for additional flavour. Don't discard the beets, you can use them as a nice garnish together with steamed greens to add some tangy flavour.